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THE DANUBE BRIDGE PROJECT. By Robert Hudson Graham.

No. III.

The second article of this series dealt exclusively with continuous girder solutions of the Danube crossing. In like manner the subject of this paper will be limited to a brief description of the semi-parabolic independent girder solution, whilst our next contribution will be a review of the arched rib designs, which, on account of their great boldness and originality, present many novel and interesting features for study and comment.

The Batignolles 'project.—The Batignolles Company presented three designs—one for a high-level semi-parabolic steel girder bridge over the main stream, another for a low-level semi-parabolic bridge with parallel central swing spans, and a third for a low-level parallel swing girder system over the Borcea Channel. The total length of the main bridge is GGO metres, made up of four independent spans, each 165 metres. The pier foundations, Fig. 13, are laid at 0*89 meti’e below zero datum, and the effective earth pressure is 6 kilogs. per square centimetre, or 82 lb. per square inch of underiving surface. The caissons measure 29‘25 by 14 metres at the base, and 27*5 by 9'75 metres near the summit. The masonry dimensions are 26 by 7'25 at low and, 191 by 6*25 metres at high-water mark. The bedding surface measures 18 by 5 05 metres. The piers rake at a vertical angle whose tangent is 0'03, or 1 in 33; the ice-breakers at an angle of 50 deg. to the horizon, or at a vertical angle whose tangent is 0 82—that is, 8 in 10. In plan the caisson ends form semicircles, and the ice-breakers on the up-stream side have triangular cutting edges, whose vertex angles, made by planes normal to the edges, are of 90 deg. The semiparabolic girders are 18*7 metres deep at the centre, 7’5 metres at the ends, and 7'5 metres apart. They abut and pivot upon solid cast iron plates firmly fixed to the masonry. The girder section is channel or double-web, fitted in with a triple lattice, with struts spaced 3 metres at the ends, and 6*45 metres at the middle part of the span, where for a short distance the lattice is in duplicate. The equivalent test load, about which there afterwards some question and reservation, was taken at 4800 kilogs. per current metre. It is said that the maximum calculated wind stress attained 14 per cent, in the top, and 29 per cent, in the lower flanges, of the maximum stress due to vertical loading. The working limit of stress for the main girders was taken at 12 kilogs. per square millimetre, or 7'6 tons per square inch. The permanent way lies excen-trically, being shifted F25 metres down stream from the centre of transverse section. The formation width is 4 5 metres, and the footway 2 metres. There are two systems of horizontal and one of transverse bracing. The Balta Viaduct is 2833 metres long, and consists of a system of continuous girders 5 metres deep and 4 metres apart, filled in with a sextuple lattice, and supported by braced iron piers, whose dimensions at the top are 4 by 1*8 metres, and vary at the base, according to the height of the viaduct, up to a maximum of 12 by 4 metres. These piers weigh 1825 kilogs. per metre of elevation, and rest upon two independent stone pedestals, each 12 metres in depth and 5*6 metres in diameter. Their top surface stands 1 metre above high water, and their foundations lie 13 metres above zero datum, where the effective earth pressure is 5 kilogs. per square centimetre, or 68‘7 lb. per square inch. The exposed wind surface of girder and train is 4’5 square metres per metre run, and that of the piers 1*5 square metres. The low-level swing bridge crosses the Borcea in the vicinity of Stelnica. Its length is 260 metres, composed of three 70-metre terminating spans and two central 25-metre swing spans. The girders are parallel, narrow-lattice, with the swing portions in solid web and cambered lower booms. The total tender for the Danube high-level project only, which was based upon the equivalent test load, and not upon the actual weight of material in the structure, was, with some sort of reservation, fixed at £791,600.

The Klein, SchmoU, and Gartner project.—This company delivered four designs—namely, two high-level, semiparabolic, iron girder bridges, and two low-level swing-bridge projects, of the same general type. The total length of the main high-level bridge is 767*4 metres, divided into four central spans, each 128*15 metres, and two end spans, each 127*4 metres long. On the right bank there is a short, independent 28-metre approach span, with parallel girders and elevated way; from the left bank begins straightway an iron viaduct over the Balta Islet. The principal foundations—Fig. 15—are laid at 3*89 metres below zero datum, where the earth pressure is 5*89 kilogs. per square centimetre, or 81 lb. per square inch. The river piers stand upon independent twin masonry pedestals, supported by separate caissons, each 10 metres in diameter. The various diameters of the pedestals are 8*4 metres at low water, 7*6 metres at high water, and 7*5 metres at bedding surfaces; and their distance apart, centre to centre, 21 metres. The superposed piers are quadrangular, pyramidal in form, braced in four planes, with a very pronounced rake in the stream-line. Inside each pedestal—Fig. 16—there is left a well, 15 metres deep and 2*5 metres in diameter, encasing a vertical girder shaft, whose function will be presently explained. Each pier is anchored by four bolts, dipping 4 metres down the masonry, and counter-held below by cramp irons. These bolts—Fig. 16—are free to slide in a transverse slot cut in a flat, fish-bellied lever plate, connecting the feet of the two corner columns on the up or down-stream sides of the structure. To the centre of this lever plate is fitted a cap, which covers a steel pivot at the top of the vertical girder shaft already mentioned. This shaft passes down the well, against the cast iron lining of which it is firmly wedged by means of keys and collars. The object of this novel arrangement is to provide a remedy for the expansion and contraction of the pier bases across the large span of 21 metres, which separates the centres of the stone pedestals, and to carry down the thrusts due to temperature effects. It may he assumed that, for a range of 70 deg. or 80 deg. Fah., the elongation or contraction in a

wrought iron length of 21 metres would be approximately 21 millimetres, or scarcely lin., to allow for which the bases of the up and down-stream pairs of columns foot upon roller joints, and can yield, to a certain extent, by carrying the flat lever with fitted cap over the steel pivot of the central girder shaft. As a set-off to the advantages of this contrivance there is the diminution of the pedestal stability moment in virtue of a well,

15    metres deep and 2'5 metres in diameter, left in the masonry. The ordinary way of providing against the effects of expansion and contraction in cases of this kind, where the foundations are independent and even where they are monolithic, is to fasten clown the pier to only one pedestal, or one side of the masonry, and leave the other joint free to slide or roll. Such was the method adopted in the piers of the Fives-Lille Company. But it is said that this device would, in the case of separate foundations, lead to a considerable enlargement of the dimensions of the pedestal carrying the fixed joint, by reason of the local concentration of the reaction. It is further claimed that the new arrangement distributes wind and temperature effects fairly between the two parts of the foundation, and that the combined action of the hinged feet of the corner columns and the pivoted anchorage determines all the pedestal reactions to be vertical. It is not, however, perfectly clear how a wind thrust compounded with vertical load can ever give rise to a purely vertical reaction; and, indeed, seeing that both pedestals carry shoulders, it would appear that Messrs. Klein were not perfectly convinced of the reality of this claim. As a matter of fact, it is the cross-bracing which eliminates the thrust due to vertical load in raking piers, just as in a roof it is the main tie-rod which annihilates the thrust upon the principals; but no human ingenuity nor contrivance can make the reaction, due to wind and static load combined, vertical. The end pier or abutment tower on the right bank is built entirely of masonry, and founded, like the river piers, on separate caissons. It is elaborately decorated and surmounted by guerrier figures. The top surfaces of the pedestals rise 3 metres above high water. The building material is limestone faced with granite. The girder section is double web, filled in with a triple lattice, the central part in duplicate. The two girders are

16    metres deep at centre, 6*5 metres at ends, and 6*76 metres apart eentre to centre. The girder ends rest on pivoted abutments. The line is carried by a series of cross girders 0'72 metre deep, and way girders 0'62 metre deep. For the sake of greater stability, two one-metre footways are placed one on each side of the permanent way. The cross bracing of the piers is very elaborate, being composed of several interlacing trusses. The working limits of stress were taken at 9‘2 kilogs. per square millimetre, or 5'8 tons per square inch, for the flanges, and 5 kilogs. per square millimetre, or 3T tons per square inch, for the cross-way girders and stiffeners. The maximum stress arising from vertical load and a wind of 150 kilogs. per square metre combined is 9*15 kilogs. per square millimetre, or 57 tons per square inch. Taking the bridge light under a wind of 270 kilogs. per square metre, the resultant stress was found to be less. Over the Balta runs a viaduct with ten spans, the central eight of which measure 62 and the two end 61 5 metres. The way is elevated, and the girders parallel, being 7'6 metres deep and 6 metres apart, and filled in with a quadruplex lattice. The weight of this portion of the work is 1800 kilogs. per current metre, which very fairly represents the share of dead load in the equivalent test load adopted by the French Corps des Ponts et Chaussees. The piers stand upon stone pedestals, similar to those under the main bridge, buried 6 metres in the ground. The depth of the Balta foundations was reduced on the assumption that the Danube bed would never extend beyond 120 metres from the present left bank. The piers are strongly braced together, and the feet of the corner columns simply rest and slide upon iron plates fixed to the pedestals. The bases of the up and down pairs of columns are nected by horizontal girders, Fig. 17, to the centres of which are attached the ends of bell-crank levers, with fulcrums on the tops of vertical shafts wedged into cast iron tube wells, similar in construction to those let into the pedestals under the main bridge. These bent levers carry at their inner ends cast iron weights, whose moments are sufficient to counterbalance those of half the combined wind force acting on one pier and span. In this way wind and temperature thrusts are carried down to the base of the pedestals. The high-level crossing over the Borcea is similar to that over the Danube, only on a smaller scale. The total tender for the two high-level projects amounts to £1,116,902.

THE ECONOMY OF RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA.

By S. De Brath, Assist. Eng., P.W.D., India.

No. II.

After an indictment so sweeping, it is incumbent upon the objector to suggest some remedy for the state of things demned. The position taken up iu my first article indicates sufficientlythegeneraldirectionreform should take. Greater personal aid; individual responsibility and authority; and the release of professional men from duties which could be as well carried out by a much cheaper agency, in place of a system under which it is almost impossible to fix responsibility, so long as even the letter of orders has been adhered to, and the regular procedure followed. It will be necessary, in order to frame a scheme which shall meet the objections alleged against the present system, to enter into the technicalities of the case more fully than has yet been done; and it is my object, not so much to advocate a theoretically perfect way of carrying out work, as to suggest that most practically feasible with the materials at hand, and avoiding all side issues, to adhere to the principle that each engineer should have his work, for which, and for which alone, his responsibility should be complete and undivided. To secure this no great administrative changes are required. An extension of the charges of most of the officers in the Department, and the superseding of some of the present rules of procedure, would be all that would be necessary. The general purport of these changes may be summed up in the following seven proposals:—

(1)    Executive engineers to be relieved of all duties of account and, as far as possible, of disbursement, except the submission of original monthly records in journal or day-book form, and the primary returns required by the engineer-in-chief. Their connection and correspondence with the accounts branch to be wholly severed, beyond the monthly submission of the accounts above mentioned to a central office for compilation and record.

(2)    The executive engineer to he personally responsible to the engineer-in-chief for the quality, cost, and progress of the works in his division—as, indeed, is nominally the case at present—and to have discretionary power with regard to purchase of stores and the sub-heads of accounts. He should be bound only by the estimates drawn up by himself, approved by the engineer-in-chief, and sanctioned by the Government of India.

(3)    New lines of railway to be divided into short charges—divisions—of twenty to thirty miles each, having due regard to the nature of the country; each to be in charge of an executive engineer, assisted by one junior officer or subordinate, according to his standing and requirements, the senior men having naturally the more difficult and extensive charges, and the junior the shorter, which they could conduct with little or no subordinate assistance.

(4)    Each five or six divisions to be under an engineer-in-chief—as at present—responsible to Government direct as his engineers are responsible to him.

(5)    The store department to be entirely under the orders of the engineer-in-chief, and its functions limited to the supply of articles not obtainable locally.

(6)    The grading of executive and assistant engineers to be revised, or their pay supplemented by a divisional allowance to bring it up to an average of Its. 800 a month, the senior assistants and present executives being placed in divisional charges.

(7)    The petty contract system of construction to be followed wherever possible.

These recommendations are only intended to suggest the general system advocated—not to be liard-and-f;ist lines. The number of officers would have to be increased in all cases where employment of daily labour without a contractor should be necessary; and it is one of the objects of the present argument to secure that elasticity of procedure to the discretion of senior officers which is now so lamentably wanting. The first proviso would secure to the executive engineer the time necessary for him to attend to his legitimate professional duties, and to Government the full value of his services, now taken up by work which would be better done by native accountants on eighty rupees a month. The safeguards in the second proposal would guarantee Government from a lavish expenditure, while effecting a great indirect saving both in time and cost of transport; and taken as a whole, the present system of sub-divisions, the relic of times when work was widely scattered and communications difficult, might be abolished in toto. At present the so-called assistant engineer is a deputy, with a separate charge, under his executive engineer, with a separate office and separate functions. His real raison cTStre has been lost sight of, which is to relieve the more experienced senior officer of the mechanical portions of an engineer’s work—levelling, setting-out, and supervision of current minor works-while himself under training for more responsible professional work.

If the younger executive engineers and senior assistants now in the Department were placed in charge of the divisions, the new railways might be made without any further increase in the staff of engineers at the disposal of the Government of India. The requirements of the lines already open would be met by a staff of district engineers under a superintendent of way and works, sub-divisional charges being abolished, or wherever absolutely necessary to retain them, filled by subordinates. It is, as a rule, a dead waste of trained skill to retain engineers of eight or nine years’ standing in charge of sub-divisions, or to place executive engineers of a corresponding seniority pleted line of railway at all in any position below that of engineer-in-chief. This would at once release a large number of men for constructive work, and if judiciously carried out would almost double the efficiency of the Department, while satisfying in a useful manner the claims of men whose prospects and promotion have again and again been admitted to be most injuriously obstructed —injuriously both to the Government they serve and to themselves. It may be objected that so much personal subordination would give rise to personal disputes. This is not found to be the case in the prosecution of large works at home, and there seems no reason why it should be the case in India. In important difficulties an appeal would always lie to Government itself, as it does at present; while the powers it wields, short of dismissal, in stoppage of promotion, transfers, and the like, is equivalent to the sudden termination by a contractor of his contract with an engineer who, for any reason, has proved himself unfitted for his post.

Finally, it is not my wish to seem to sit in judgment on the governing members of the Department. They did not make the Department, they took it as they found it; and if the evil effects of the system had pressed as heavily on them as on The junior members, they would doubtless have been more alive to abuses, even though, as military men, they could scarcely be expected to chafe at a military code as a civilian does. It has also been my object to confine myself strictly to the main issue. Whether the accounts department might not be profitably reduced, and the system of accouut much simplified ; whether railways are not made with too much completeness at first, and too little room given for possible expansion ; whether the system of open competition be not the best method of recruiting the Department; whether State or private agency be the more profitable; all these things are beside the purpose of this article, which is to

show how great an opportunity is now offered to the “lampstick.” There is evidence in mythology that the Government of India, by the approaching era of railway torch was superseded by the lamp. In the first century expansion, to put its constructive department on a sounder, Martial mentions the candle as an old affair, and between more commercial, and economical footing, and at the same a.d. 150—220 Athemeus, in his “Deipnosophistm,” describes time to lay to rest contentions which have now disorganised a man ordering a waiter to bring him farthing dips:— that service for fourteen years.    l/ioi Se ir«» SupdiSenr^e acraaplou KavSi]\as irplu. This, no doubt,

says Mr. Field, was a rushlight, an article which at that time had come pretty generally into use. Apuleius describes an alarmed family running in with “ torches of pine, lamps, tallow candles, and wax tapers.” Candles, however, until recent times, were never considered so respectable as lamps. At Herculaneum a chandler’s apparatus was found, and in the British Museum is a part of a huge candle found in Vaison, near Orange, and supposed to have been made about a.d. 1. All these illuminating materials smoked badly as made in ancient times; indeed, after a symposium, with, perhaps, a dozen lamps smoking fearfully, it was the recognised duty of one of the slaves to go round next morning, wiping the sooty pictures and statues. Taking all things into consideration, Mr. Field is inclined to Lamb’s opinion, that “our ancestors wandered to and fro—groping.”

The oldest account books still existing of Messrs. Fields date back to about the year 1700, and some materials which are at least two centuries old have been found on the premises. Wax w;is bleached in the establishment in 1700, and as this operation requires bright sunshine and pure air, the atmosphere of London must have differed then from its present condition. The earliest member of the firm of whom there is any record was Thomas Field, who died in 1710. Fifty years ago the premises were sur-

MESSRS. FIELD AND CO.’S CANDLE WORKS.

Tiie chief and oldest department of the candle works of Messrs. Field and Co. is in Lambeth Marsh, at the hack of St. Thomas’s Hospital, and a few minutes’ walk from Westminster Bridge, London. The firm has existed from time immemorial, its origin being lost in the dim mists of antiquity; and it has supplied the Court, the Houses of Parliament, and the Archbishop’s Palace at Lambeth with candles as far back as the records can be traced in the archives of the past. Six generations at least of the house of Field have successively enhanced the reputation of the firm, and how many more there may have been is a matter of research for the antiquary. Who was the original Mr. Field is thus unknown. He was probably one who had an earnest desire to lighten the darkness of the world around him, and to derive an honourable income for himself in the process. As the centuries rolled on, the firm waxed—if the expression may be allowed—waxed mighty, until it has attained its present altitude. Not alone have the official representatives of the nation been faithful to the house of Field ; some of the old county families—who abhor new-fangled things,such as gas, electricity, engineers,

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acid candles, the glycerine having been previously separated because of its comparative uninflammability. The tallow when it reaches the works is dealt with either by the old “ saponification ” or more modern “high-pressure” process. The contents of the casks are steamed out into a great iron tank, into which, also, all the greasy dirt and refuse from the factory are thrown; palm oil is added, as well as a quantity of lime mixed with water, until it has the consistency of cream; about three-fourths of a ton of lime are added to five tons of mixed tallow and palm oil in this tank. The whole mixture is then boiled for four hours by means of steam, which enters through holes perforated in the bottom of the containing vessel. When the boiling is stopped the dirt sinks to the bottom, as well as the water, which now holds the glycerine in solution. This dilute solution is drawn off, and is technically known as “sweet water.” The lime combiiu s with the stearic, oleic, and palmitic acids, the mixed salts forming a substance technically called “ rock.” It has a cream colour, and a smell of the same order as that of violets. The offensive smell of tallow is entirely absent. The “ rock” is then transferred to a tank lined with lead, in which it is boiled for several hours with an equal weigl t to the lime of commercial sulphuric acid, technically known as “brown oil.” This separates the lime in the form of sulphate, and leaves the fatty acids floating on the surface. Thus a vast quantity of sulphate of lime-gypsum—is formed at the works in a pasty condition; and at present it is entirely a waste product, of utilising the tons of it produced having been devised. The mixture of fatty acids is then run into rectangular

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and railways—still purchase their wax candles of J.C. and J. j rounded by fields, dotted here and there with small houses. Field and Co.,and burn them, ;is their forefathers did before Enough of the past; come we now to the present. The them. To such, stearine displays its attractions in vain, boiler house contains four boilers, the largest of the and paraffine is an abomination for the additional reason that it has usurped the ancient name of wax. Besides, your connoisseur knows the real, old-fashioned wax candle from the English or American imitation. The smell and colour are partial guides, but more especially the series of rings seen, as in the stem of a tree, when it is cut transversely, each indicating the superfusion of an additional Layer of the material. The present representative of the name, Mr. Leopold Field, F.C.S., has made original researches vegetable waxes, on the chemistry of the oils and paraffines. lie delivered a series of lectures, about eighteen months ago, before the Society of Arts,on illuminating materials, and these lectures displayed high scientific ability and classical knowledge.

His father, Mr. Frederick Field, is a Fellow of the Boyal Society, and of various other learned bodies. He was for some years her Majesty’s Vice-Consul at Chili. His researches on the mineralogy, determination, and estimation of copper and silver, have extended scientific knowledge in relation to these metals, and their sources of supply.

The same mystery which hangs over the origin of the house of Field hangs, also, over the origin of the candle.

There is no record of the kind of light used by Adam when he read his Engineer on Friday nights to little Tubal Cain; yet the latter must have been familiar with its contents, or he could not have become so good an artificer in metals. Perhaps, like Gerald Massey, the boy caught glow-worms, and allowed them to crawl over the pages. Problems like these may be relegated to the Society of Antiquaries, whose duty it is to find the solution.

Mr. Leopold Field, in his lectures to the Society of Arts, says that in the translation of the Scriptures the words “candle” and “candlestick” are used indiscriminately with “lamp”; that the veritable candle was not intended, and th^t the word “ candlestick ” should haye been rendered

Galloway type; its dimensions are 7ft. by 30ft. The other three are Cornish boilers, and smaller than the Galloway. The chief function of these boilers is to su heating purposes, but a small portion power is necessary to drive the various machine.s. Except in the boiler house there is no fire in the factory. The four specialities of the firm are the manufacture of candles from spermaceti, stearine, paraffine, ozokerit, bee’s and

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Chevreuil’s discoveries, which commenced in 1811, laid the foundation of the stearine industry; he first made known that the fats were not pure chemical substances, but compounds of a fatty acid with glycerine, and he continued his brilliant researches, in which he decomposed one fatty substance after another, until his scientific labours on the subject were finished in 1823. In 1825 he turned to the practical application of his discoveries, and with Gay Lussac founded a factory for the commercial manufacture of stearine. It proved a commercial failure. The first to achieve success in a commercial sense by the adoption of Chevreuil’s discoveries was M. de Milly, who in 1832 commenced manufacturing stearine candles near the Barricre de l’Etoile, Paris. Since then the processes of manufacture have been improved by Wilson, Tighlmann, and others.

At Messrs. Field’s works the mutton and beef tallows arrive in casks; their chief sources of supply are Australia and England, Russia no longer having the ascendancy which was once the case. The freight from Russia is more expensive, and the price of Russian tallow higher than the others, in about the proportion of five to four, at its selling rates in England. Tallow is a mixture of stearine and oleine, and stearine consists of stearic acid and glycerine ; in fact, what are called stearine candles are in reality stearic

tins, in which it solidifies into “ press cakes,” soft and brown. The same brown mixture is also produced on the premises by another process. The crude tallow and palm oil are put into a copper vessel, in which they are heated by steam, and subjected to a pressure of 170 lb. to the inch ; about 2 per cent, of lime is previously mixed with them. A minute constant escape of steam through a tap enables the incoming steam to keep the contents of the vessel in constant agitation, without much reducing the pressure on the mass. After four hours of this treatment the separation of the fatty acids is complete. Two French elephant boilers are used to get up the steam, the advantage being that they can be heated up rapidly. Steam blows the product over into the receiving tanks. The whole apparatus is represented in our engravings, is always a little charring by this method; so saponification process gives slightly the best prod product, by either process, after it has been rectangular tins, forms the soft brown cakes already mentioned. The oleic acid is the soft one which it is now desired to separate. The cakes are next placed in horsehair bags, and with a piece of cocoa-nut matting between each bag are subjected for an hour or two to hydraulic pressure. This forces out the bulk of the oleic acid, leaving the cake harder, of a light yellow colour, and with symptoms of a crystalline condition. The relative prices of olein to stearine are as 30 to 50; so it is a great point to get rid as completely as possible of the former. The oil squeezed out is pumped into casks, for use in the manufacture of soap. Before this first pressing operation the cakes contain 50 per cent, of oleic acid; afterwards they contain but about 10 per cent. The cakes are next placed in stronger bags, and pressed for an hour at a temperature of 90 deg. Fah. in an atmosphere of wet steam ; the pressure is about six tons to the inch. Lastly, for the very finest stcarine, white and crystalline, they are subjected for one and a-half hours to a pressure of six tons to the

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Dec. 26, 1884.

THE ENGINEER.

477

inch, at a temperature of 140 deg. Fah. Perfectly pure stearine has a melting point of 159 deg. Fah., but this is never obtained in the manufacture upon a large scale. Some “ distilled stearine ” of foreign make is also used on the premises. This is made chiefly from palm oil by the “ acidification process,” in which the glycerine is charred by strong sulphuric acid, and the freed fatty acids subsequently distilled over in an atmosphere of superheated steam. The stearine is next melted into wooden tubs. In these tubs it is boiled by steam with a weak solution of sulphuric acid in water, in order to remove dirt and dross. Then it is run into cakes, which are stored for use.

The next operation is the moulding of the stearine, or other substance, into candles. The machine for doing this is of exceedingly ingenious construction, and is of comparatively modern invention. Its origin is, nevertheless, involved in some obscurity.

Mr. Leopold Field states that, as well as he can ascertain, it was introduced into England from America, between 1848 and 1850.";Since then there have been im-jirovements in matters of detail, some of them patented by Mr. E. Cowles, of Hounslow, others by Messrs.

Field. The accompanying sectional diagram wdl serve to explain the essential principle of the different varieties of machines. In this cut, A B is the wick, held in the centre of the mould F H, by the cold candle R, and a bobbin below B, from which it is unrolled as required. Above the bobbin is a horizontal jdatform, which can be made to rise and fall vertically.

This platform carries a number of tubes, the upper end of one of which is shown at N W. At the end of this tube is the mould of the tip of the candle K. The mould of the cylinder of the candle is represented by F H. The melted stearine is poured into the top of the machine till it fills all the tubes, and moreover rises to the level E E ; its coolin is hastened by cold or tepi water flowing around the outside of the tubes. When the fatty acid is sufficiently cool, the wicks are cut at D, and the finished candles—of which R is one —removed. The platform below B is then raised, pushing up the candle-tip moulds K, which rise like pistons in tne tubes F H, until the candles Y take the places of those removed from R—and so on for ever. The tube F IT is a shade smaller at H than at F, which facilitates the expulsion of the candle. At each operation the machine makes from 80 to 100 candles, which, in the first instance, can be carried about on their stearine platform E E, from which they are afterwards separated, and cut to their proper lengths. The candle is thus bottom ujiwardswhilebeing moulded. At one time there was much difficulty in preventing the stearine from crystallising in the moulds, and Ure states that arsenic was actually mixed with it to prevent this. The difficulty, is now overcome by the simple method of pouring in the stearine at as low a temperature as possible, and keeping it well stirred up to the moment of use.

The details of the latest and most improved form of the candle-making machine are shown in our engravings, and include some new’ modifications published in Cowles’s patent of November 24th, 1882. In these engravings, to use the words of the inventor, “ Fig. 1 shows an end view of a candle machine, Fig. 2 shows a cross section, Fig. 3 a longitudinal section, and Fig. 4 a sectional plan. The general construction of the machine is similar to that of candle machines now in use, and need not be further described. In such machines, the casing A containing the candle moulds B B has heretofore always been entirely filled with water, as above stated; according to my present invention, I introduce into the casing two separate boxes or receptacles C C, within each of which are contained two rows of the candle moulds, and these boxes alone supplied with water, thus economising the water that would otherwise fill the spaces DD¹ I)', effect a very uniform distribution of the water in the boxes C C, the supply pipe E is led to the middle of the central

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pipe E', in which it flows in both directions to the matter likely to be injurious to health when burnt, perforated pipes E* E² in the lower parts of the boxes, so | Eosine gives a red candle; chlorophyll from the berries of that the water issues simultaneously and with equal , the buckthorn, gives a candle of a delicate green; the wore* pressure along the whole length of these pipes into the quality of stearine, that is to say, the stearine which has beei boxes, and, after rising up in the same, overflows through least pressed, has a yellowish colour, but turmeric is used for openings at F into the outer casing A, where it falls to the true yellow Then the shapes of candles vary. There is the bottom and is led off through one or more escape pipes G. “ cable candle,” for instance, with its spiral exterior, mad-By this arrangement also the slide troughs and more or by turning it in a little machine, constructed on the same less complicated and expensive arrangement of overflow principle as that for rifling guns at Woolwich. The pipes necessary in the existing arrangements are “ Cleopatra candle,” a fac simile of Cleopatra’s needle, hat dispensed with. In order to gain access to the interior of hieroglyphics printed upon it. The printing of designs the boxes C for cleansing purposes, the one end or both upon candles is effected by filling the mould with hot ends of the casings A is or are formed with openings closed paraffine, then pouring it out again, so that but a thin film by covers H, and the boxes B have similar openings closed of the wax is left on the surface of the mould; the hiero-by covers opposite to these, so that, on removing the covers, glypliics, lettering, or designs, previously printed in oil the interiors of the boxes are accessible. According to colours on a film of wax in a lithographic press, are then

slipped into the mould; the wick is next drawn through, and the mould finally filled as in making an ordinary candle. In some candles a design is cut in an endle. s groove on the exterior; tie candle is then again placed in its mould, and coloured wax poured into the groove to form the design. The candles graduated with a design like that on a thermometer tube are nuule in this way. Aniline colours will not dissolve in paraffine, and are introduced into it by first dissolving them in a little stearic acid.

The object of mixing palm oil with tallow in the begin-ningof tlieprocessof making stearine candles is that it facilitates the pressing, doubtless because of differences in the crystallisation, of palmitic and stearic acids. The mixture of these two acids was once called “ mar-garic acid,” which is now known to be an undiscovered chemical substance. As a trace of olein materially lowers the melting joint of stearine, it is of the greatest irajx>rtance to free the acid crystals entirely from the oil; and the relative values of stearine and olein being its 50 to 30, a point of equal importance is to prevent the former passing away in the latter under the heat and jires-sure. Various patents exist for this purpose, but as yet no method has been discovered which yields results .adequate to the exjjense of working.

The “sweet water” obtained from the first treatment of the tallow is evaporated down to a brown coloured glycerine, which is used for making dynamite; in its brown state it will not do for soaj), because of its smell.

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another modification, shown at Fig. 5, the boxes C are provided with a middle partition C¹, the perforated pipe E* being situated below it, so as to supply the water simultaneously to both compartments. Fig. 6 shows arrangement in which each candle mould B is surrounded by a separate chamber or tube C, all communicating at bottom with the space C* into which the water is fed by the supply pipe communicating with each end thereof. The water, after rising in the tubes, overflows at the upper ends thereof into the space D of the outer casing, whence it is led off through an escape pipe.”

One of the two persjmctive diagrams among our engravings represents a machine with modifications, invented by Mr. Lyon Field, for casting “ ruffs ” at the lower ends of candles so that they will fit candlesticks of any size.

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CANDLE MAKING MACHINE—PERSPECTIVE VIEW.

Messrs. Field are the only manufacturers of this jx>pular description of candle, which necessitates the of a mould made in two parts, otherwise the candle could not be removed from its temporary casing.

Professor Tyndall, who, in his Belfast address to the British Association, spoke of man as melting away like a summer cloud into the infinite azure of the past, probably derived the idea from the ethereal purity, the virgin whiteness of a Field’s candle, by which he may have been writing; in fact, those who have never thought of taking the trouble to examine what can be done in the manufacture of ornamental candles, have no idea of the beauty of some of the finished products, with their alabastrine trans-lucency and, in some cases, delicacy of colour. In colouring candles, aniline and other organic dyes are used, care being taken not to emjdoy any mineral or other colouring

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CANDLE MAKING MACHINE—PERSPECTIVE VIEW.

The effect of the recent legal restrictions on the sale of dynamite and nitro-glycerine has been to cut down the demand for the same for legitimate use ; the price of crude brown glycerine has therefore fallen from £65 to £30 j>er ton.

About a hundred different wicks

are employed on the premises, from the half-inch cable which is used in the largest-sized church candle, to the tiny filament which burns in the night light. The size and substance of the

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only 1*02 fluid oz. per second. The momentary projective of the stream in the constriction exceeded the driving actually doing work upon it, in this case, in the ratio of the cubes of those numbers, or as 1*324:1, and the velocity of the stream in the narrowed channel is evidently determined by some other causes than those of the work bestowed upon it.

The free choice which here plainly shows itself of two mutually irreconcileable ways of reckoning the work which the water has received from rest, where it glides through the constriction, one by the actual energy per second which there comes to hand, and the other by the known amount of meohanical work which, up to that point, gravity expends upon it, reveals, I believe, a partial un-

mechanical activity. The two half-stores, then, of a material particle’s total energy of motion are exchanged by two means—by oscillations and by boundary diffusions of its atoms with substances in which they are bathed—and of which they are themselves compounded—composed of surrounding and component material atoms of two infinitely finer grades of dimension than its own; in the first place, by oscillating, swinging, or turning about of the atoms in a statical, quiescent shape of momentum per of double grade interval of infinitely

and presumptuous a conclusion to assert, as it is surely plain reason and sound sense to say that it is a very singularly gauche and one-sided estimate to entertain of what we would otherwise naturally deem and expect, that our attainable knowledge of abso lute space’s fixed attitude and capacity would ever, by any likelihood, be able to reach to.

But whether we think of the stellar vault and its asterisms as a space-colony, which may be as much in unknown rotation as in unknown translation in absolute space or not, there is at least sufficient want of consonance between what is actually known of its fixed attitude, and what our & priori ideas would instead naturally ascribe to it of entire freedom and disjunction from absolute space in every way, to make a presumption probable that the sensible non-rotativeness of astronomical space is a natural, and yet in some respect or other, of course, unsearchable, communion or fusion of its properties with those of absolute space in that respect of un-rotativeness—what was called above, in short, oscillating, swinging or turning about of some kind—which could not exist without some definite law of connection between energy of motion in absolute space and that of motions in partial or relative spaces competent to produce the singular congruity between celestial space and absolute space, of the former’s sensible deprivation of all rotation, which the researches of physical astronomy have proved and established unquestionably as a fact of such primary consequence and importance that it is the whole base and foundation upon which the science of mechanics, as it was outlined by Newton, rests.

It was sufficient for Newton’s outline of the laws of motion in the “ Principia ” to assign to his “vis” or “vigour” competence to produce translation, without for his immediate methodical and scientific purpose, unneessarily investing the general term also the additional capability, which in its unrestricted sense and exercise it really possesses besides, of directly producing something equivalent to rotation. No discernible sign or token exists—when we exclude friction from ordinary mechanics—that energy of absolute motions outside our stellar sphere has any such single rotating ability in celestial mechanics, though by pairing together its trans-

wick, whether of cotton or flax, have to he proportioned to the hydrocarbon, or fatty acid, which is to be consumed. A substance containing a large proportion of oil needs a large wick to carry off the excess of liquid; also a very hard ozokerit or stearine candle requires a large wick to melt all the substance within the given radius. The two great defects to which a candle is liable are guttering and smoking—the former being due to too small a wick in a soft medium, the latter to too large and porous a wick, which feeds the flame too rapidly to ensure perfect combustion, and to raise the liberated carbon particles to a white heat. The true art of candle making lies in obviating these defects, and as no two parcels of crude tallow or paraffine are exactly the same in composition, the task is one of no little difficulty. By cunningly blending different brands of cotton and flax, increasing the porosity in the removal of mineral matter with nitric or hydrochloric acids, decreasing it in another by obstruction of the pores with sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of potash, and so on, the wick is tempered to the varying substance with tolerably uniform success. The outward bending of the wick, so as to bring the tip into combustive contact with the air, formerly accomplished by saturation with pulverised metallic bismuth, according to Palmer’s patent, is now achieved by simply tightening the plait on one side, thus setting up unequal tension.

In relation to the subject of guttering and smoking, it may be mentioned that a valuable patent exists, which worked by Messrs. Field. Acting on the theory that smoking is produced by an insufficient supply of air, the candles are perforated throughout their length, the channels thus formed communicating with the outer atmosphere by means of lateral holes. The current of air impinging directly on the base of the flame consumes any excess of carbon, while the channels act as internal exits for the superfluous melted stearine. The most successful invention, however, for the prevention of guttering is the “ lychnophylax,” which being interpreted means “ candle-god.” This consists of an elegant little glass cap exactly fitting the candle, and sliding down as the substance is consumed. Being ghiss, it does not conduct the heat of the candle sufficiently to melt the wax on its own account, which is the case with all brass appliances for that purpose, and its construction is such that no amount of draught will cause the liquid grease to overflow the rim.

Wax differs from all other substances when used for making candles. It cannot be moulded because it adheres to the metal walls, hence it has to be poured upon the suspended wicks in successive increments. The shapeless cylinder is then rolled upon a hard marble slab, and shaped with a little piece of wood in the hands of men of twenty years’ experience. The two “waxmen” at Messrs. Fields have been over forty years at this work. The sealing-wax man, named John Walters, aged eighty, is the oldest on the premises ; when he was was first engaged, sixty years ago, bees drew honey from the flowers where now the South-Western Kailway runs, and Lambeth Marsh was a marsh in reality. Sealing-wax is so called, because it contains no wax, and never did.

Among our engravings accompanying this article are two sectional representations of the steam apparatus of M. P. Morane, sen., of Paris, for the manufacture of stearic acid under pressure.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[We do not hold ourselves responsible for the opinions of our correspondents,]

THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS.

Sill,—In reply to remarks and letters on this subject in the impressions of THE Engineer of the 28th ult. and 5th inst., I see no reason to alter my statement that no work is required cither to begin, or to modify, a fluid stream, without friction, if no change is thereby made in its dynamic head. But to denote the sum of the motric and barometric heads together at a point of a flowing stream, the word “encratic head,” instead of “dynamic head,” would perhaps be preferable, sinco Rankine gi to the barometric head alone of a fluid particle of a stream when all differences of pressure caused in the stream cither by friction or by propulsive forces acting on it arc left out of account from the actual pressures which the current shows. Of the remaining undisturbed head in that case, or of the “ dynamic head,” as Rankine calls it, and of the motric head due to speed of flow at a given point, the sum together, or the total energy of each unit-weight of the fluid by itself, and of all the unit-weights together of the moving body of the fluid, Rankine tells us is a constant and unvarying total sum of energy in the fluid mass.

“ The total energy of a particle of a moving fluid without friction,” he writes, “is expressed thus—h being the above undisturbed or “ dynamic ” head—

^ may be increased by an equal amount, and

vice versd ; so that the dynamic head of a particle is its potential energy per unit of weight. In the case of steady motion, the total energy of each particle is constant, and the total energy of each of the equal particles which successively occupy the same position is the same. In the case of unsteady motion, the total internal energy of the entire mass is constant—that is, the following

equation is fulfilled: 5 W ^    ^

If in an atmosphere of unfathomable extent, like that in which fans and ventilators set up their currents, a fluid particle is taken from its place of repose, passes in a stream with one velocity or another—whatever it may be—along a course and returns to its repose again, where its total energy is what it was at first and what it was all along its route, if we keep out of sight friction, which consumes, and gravity or other propelling forces, which recruit its energy, what work is needed to guide it in its path, along which its “ total energy is constant” and never suffers any alteration? In the common toy called a bandelier, which is a wooden spool round whose thin axle a few feet of string wound, the loose end of which is held in the hand, what work iB required—friction of the air and of the string in unwinding and winding itself up again alone excepted—to make the spool rise and fall in turns, which drops by itself, and rises again to the hand by itself, at each excursion, whether it is dropped far, or whether, holding the string short, we drop it but a little way ?

Am I contending for perpetual motion, or for a theory of sexes in physical forces, as Mr. A. L. Steavenson seems to suppose, when I cite a well-known fact which can scarcely be less familiar to

engineers than it must have been to Bruce’s persevering spider, which dropped itself seven times from a certain point at the end of its tight line, with the object and result at last of reaching another point at a similar elevation ?

It is this guidance of its stream, this tether length, or pace of current flow, which a fan commands—not work bestowed thereon —which requires more art and knowledge of the laws of fluid ballistics to fix in any case than is needed to measure the length of a bandelier string or of a spider’s swinging line; but the natures of the two problems’ requirements are both the same. It may be that some fans have a quicker fetch, or give a freer and faster flow through the same mine with the same working depression of water-gauge in each, than another fan would have; and this faculty of liberation and exhibition of speed in the current is an element of the horse-power spent upon it, whose presence and origin in the stream is quite independent in its source from the main lowering of encratic head which friction of the ways inflicts, and power used on the fan undoes in keeping up the motion of its flow. Just in the same way, with constant frictional resistance of the string, much more work is done by the hand in the same time when the bandelier reel is kept rising and falling with a long string and with very rapid paces, then when it is played up and down with a short string and with very slow-paced excursions.

This distinction between liberation of current and depression of encratic head, as joint factors of their efficiencies which in different fans vary quite independently of each other in their amounts, lias been brought prominently into evidence by the high air velocities which Mr. Capell’s fans were found to set up compared to other fans, b oth in the condition when their inlets are open, and as I believe is also found to be the case when they drag air through a mine.

This answers Mr. A. L. Steavenson’s question, although I will not venture to trespass so much upon your valuable space as to endeavour to elucidate the “ little matter” about which he is pleased to wish for and to second bold interrogation, much more fully yet than I have attempted to do above; why stepping stones for a right intelligence of how energy wielded by power is in general lost by friction have presented themselves with a somewhat unexpected service of material advantage to science, and I hope that it will also be found with substantial benefits as well, as they continue to receive new improvements, in the practical uses and applications of Mr. Oapell’s and other ventilating fans.

The formula    where M is the weight of air in pounds dis-

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charged per second, and v its velocity in feet per second, expresses the work, in foot-pounds per second, of the discharge of gases from a rocket, or of that of steam from an escape pipe. It would measure the ventilating work of an air current maintained by the steam jet of a Koerting’s blower, if applied directly to the torrent of steam which the jet throws into the air, supposing all this work of the jet to be taken up usefully by the air current, and to be all lost in friction before the circulating flow of air comes round again, with no material rapidity of its own, and with the steam all condensed out of it, to the steam blower. But a fan’s impulse on a current is plainly unamenable in its work to any rocket or steam-like rule of this construction, because the very same speed with which the stream starts from any point as a jet—with a H.l\, for example, 0‘227, computed by velocity for one of my experiments— is also the very speed with which the stream of air returns to the same point, and where is there room, therefore, for a jet’s horsepower as a functionary of work—which is at least undone exactly as fast as it is done, and is thus “momentary,” as Mr. Clark describes it—to connive and join in any simply related way with the persistent and operative driving work of the stream? Even a conjecture that the current’s driving power could not be less than such a rule of calculation prescribes for it; or, in other words, that a law prevailed in fluid motion that the momentary jet-like work of velocity at any section of a circulating stream could not exceed or surpass the work used in keeping the motion of the stream constant, filled me at first with gratification—as I wrote in a previous letter—on reading and weighing it, as a discovery, if it were true, in the natural relations of fluid work and energy. But the correctness of this rule of limitation may easily be disproved by very simple considerations. In a current circulating in a ring-shaped tube, the total energy can accumulate by reason of work done upon the stream, and rise to any height, until the momentary power of the speed surpasses in any desired proportion the applied driving power, which may even be suspended, leaving the momentary power in the stream, which it has accumulated, unaffected.

In ordinary ventilating currents which terminate at each end of their course in the atmosphere, no losses or increases of total energy—using the word in Rankine’s sense as what remains when heads of pressure in the current, duo to forces and to friction, are set aside—arc possible, because that of the atmosphere in which tho currents begin and end is invariable. A water stream rising in a jet to the level of the head from which it fell is a type of such currents, when without friction an air stream taken from the atmosphere is urged by water gauge, or partial vacuum of a driving power through an inlet with momentary power at the inlet, equal to the driving power consumed, and which then uses up its actual energy of velocity to regain its pressure, we will say, and to j at no appreciable speed into the atmosphere by expansion of its channel. In doing so, it fills up the vacuum made to transport it at full atmospheric pressure, and no driving work is really done; yet the jet or momentary power of the stream at the inlet continues unabated, and surpasses the net work now done upon the stream by an amount—that of the driving power supp be used—assigned in the process by a defining cause of is now no other trace left of the original existence. As far as it merits the title, and has any distinctive capacity in the current as a motive power, it is so at the most for a moment only, limiting and not in any measure furnishing the motion. The latter may, in fact, far from reprieving and obliterating the driving power by expansion, lend itself instead to raising friction by throwing away the actual energy which ought to replenish the partial vacuum, and so make the momentary power change its character and do work.

A proof that the working capabilities of the stream are not directly concerned in prescribing its jet or momentary power occurs in the upturned jet-d'eau of water. If its delivery orifice is a round hole in a thin plate of a projecting branch of the reservoir, the velocity due to the head of water above it in the reservoir is not found in the orifice itself, but in the contracted vein of the fountain jet a little way above the orifice, and the jet spouts up to the height of its original water-level—supposing friction absent— in a stream of less cross section there than the area of the orifice, in a certain ratio known as the coefficient of discharge. Instead of less, this coefficient may be made greater than unity by fitting a short tube to the orifice with a bell-mouthed opening, rounding the tube also inwards towards the reservoir. With a short piece of glass tube constricted at its middle to half of its end cross sections, I have just now obtained, by way of experiment, a water discharge with a certain head of water of 1T2 fluid oz. per second, when the calculated discharge due to the water’s head from its free level to the lower delivery end of the tube, and corresponding to a careful measure of the area of the constriction, should have been

power power

truth of each of the two hypotheses taken singly, but, nevertheless, an accordance between them when they are taken jointly, which arises from insufficiently wide scope of the definition that is usually given of energy, that is, the power of doing work. Stored energy of motion existing in any particle of matter possesses, in fact, conjointly two distinct mechanical capabilities, or a mechanical vigour of a two-fold kind. Although the venture may appear as bold as, perhaps, Mr. A. L. Steavenson would desire, and can unfortunately not be quite so brief and blunt in its description, as it has grown upon me only gradually by pretty long reflection, and is not at all an offspring of a moment, I will try to give a distinct mise-cn-scene, in as few clear words as I can, of the way in which the two capabilities have appeared to me to be probably constituted,

that it may be seen if vigour or ^ , instead of only single energy, or r" per lb., is not really the constant source of moving matter’s second to the substance greater particled fineness from them, termed exchange — or half-vigour—of potential enerjpq that is to say, of energy of place in some relative space in which the particle of third or largest grade atoms is moving. Examples of this are the stresses of solids, liquids, and gases, and all other mechanical moving forces and their potentials, excluding neither capillary nor electrical nor magnetic forces, nor even, if the theory’s legitimate extension to countless different grades of mechanical fineness is allowed, and if heat is admitted to perform among them all, a task just as final and complete of grouping together into the imperfect solid, liquid and gaseous orders of matter’s motions that we see, the frictionless or ideally perfect rigid liquid and gaseous trigradal motion-forms that linked grades within linked grades of any material body comprise invisibly to us, the force of terrestrial and celestial gravitation also as the most comprehensive and embracing, and therefore as the most invariably active of all energy’s potential half-storo exchanges with which we are acquainted.

Another process, of diffusion between the surrounding and component matter-atoms of a single grade interval only of fineness from its own atoms, enables a moving particle to exchange energy per foot, or to “do work,” as it is termed, of transformation or transference of, energy, which is lost and gained in this case by the “ actual ” half store of the moving particles’ energy, or by the energy of pace, instead of by the energy of place, of its atoms in the relative space in wliich it and the surrounding matter severally are in motion.

In a perfectly frictionless motion consisting, for simplicity, as above, of three grades of material fineness in a moving particlo’s atoms, and their double grade ingredient and enclosing-medium atoms, tho moving particle or atom system's twofold store of energy can, in virtue of the particle, atom, or atom-system’s structure, and of that of the double-mediums investing atoms taken also (if we pleaBe, but this is not strictly admissible or necessary, as will appear), as a third-grade atom or particle, or system of them by itself as well, compensate together in the sum any changes that may happen to occur in the two half-stores of its total energy amount, by the two kinds of action just described; and a rule of equipoise in tho frictionless motion then exists, ensuring tho constancy of the atom, particle, or systems (and also, if we please, but not strictly, of the quasi-systems), total energy of motion, which can be described (not, perhaps, strictly as regards the quasi-systems couple), as an exact balance or opposition of» their two vigours or energy-couples, borrowing no external work, and yet not preventing any possible varieties of their motions to go on between them in the common relative space in which their energies are reckoned. The subgradal investing-atom, or particle of quasi third-grade system is a pseudo system hero, not consisting really of third grade atoms, but of their investing inter-atoms; and may be taken in the description as an ideal fellow-body to the other, properly composed.

The solar system, for illustration, forms an example of such a motion, being sensibly frictionlcss, and sensibly perfect, or free from action of outer vigour-couples on its total sum of actual and potential energy, which remains appreciably invariable when reckoned in that vast abyss of space as its relative ono to surrounding objects, which includes all the fixed stars which we can sec. Some minute disturbances of it still continue to be traced, of which the origins, whether of outer vigour or of inner friction, have not yet all been discovered. But supposing even that friction should wear out, and outer-couples all come to be known and included in the system, leaving the fact quite incontestable at last, that the system’s total energy then is invariable as reckoned in a relative space which comprises the whole visible firmament around it, this would not evince in the least degree that all visible space may not be in rotation as well as in onward progress in absolute space; and whatever Foucault’s pendulum experiment may prove regarding the earth’s rotation in the relative space of the firmament around us, it surely would be a very extraordinary thing indeed if it sufficed to tell us also half of what we want to know about absolute space and absolute motion in it—that we actually behold in the firmament, space which is absolute as regards rotation and devoid of all revolution round any of three axes; while mechanics yet can give us no suspicion of conjecture whether it is in absolute motion of linear progression or not, in one direction of absoluto space or another! That the directions and not the extent of the axes of absolute space should be known to us, seems at least as vain

with

tion in Paris, in the year 1882, are a finer-grade modification of the ring-vortex phenomena; and so are in a similar measure, also, light-mills or radiometers. In these tensional and actual energies of a wave, and its sound-speed or light-speed of transmission, take the place of the rotational whirl and vacuum, and of the onward progressive motion of the vortex-ring. An inherent defect of these illustrations, debarring them, however, from being real models of the nature of ordinary force actions, is that the finer and the textured structures—the fluid and the ring or wave—of which their fabric consists do not differ from each other in size as far as a basic-atom differs in vulgar-fractional dimensions from a firmament, but only half as far; or by a semi-grade only of mensurable infinity; and thus their phenomena are close similitudes, but yet pseudoimitations only of absolute motion interchanges between two grades, because one of the motions is not of absolutely unappre-hendable dimensions. It is attempted in their appliances towards resolving the problem of mechanics to enlist rules of measurable motions in the service, or those of motions in relative or partial space only, which govern and preside over the illustrations in the form in which, at their best, they present themselves to us for study and observation; instead of at once seeking out and enrolling among the rules of speculative mechanics, or of general phorotics, a principle of energy of absolute motions capable of dealing with the generalised conception which either of the illustrations will forthwith present, if instead of being dwarfed in one structure— the ring or the wave—of its fabric to an ordinary measurable calibre, this structure also, like the finer-textured one of the fluid used, surpasses our means of measurement in its stature beyond all ch of reckoning. In the realms of absolute space within and without our sphere, where the “ mill’s ” motions in their inner and outer wheel will then be performed, and where the energy of motion that they will use will be that of motions divested of their previous relativity, no law except a binding one of connection between such energies in their particular mode of association together then can possibly remain to tell us what kind of force reactions will arise thereout, and what kind of work performance will be done between two such “mills”—called “atoms” there— in the large statured interminable shell or grade of relative or partial space outside of ours, in which two mills or firmamental atoms so produced will perform their operations side by side. One pair of such mills or vigour-couples may furnish a directly-opposed or a funicular pair of mutually attracting atoms; another, a pair of parallel and oppositely directed forces forming a couple; and at will, besides, the two conservative translative efforts need have no relation to each other, but may tend each to move its atom at large in the boundless partial space. It is found actually, however —as was noticed before—that balance of this kind, with random matter in the space, is not possible, and that funicular conjunctions of the mills in pairs of equal force tension occur always, directed oppositely along a common right line, whether, it appears, the energy exchanges that occur are perfect and reversible, or take place with friction. Extravagant as all this may seem as a “ speculative outline of mechanics,” it is yet tuneful harmony and order compared to the unreclaimed wilderness of actions with which even simple mechanics is preyed upon by friction, and in which hordes of physical scavengers, much too numerous to mention, store up and convert into heat, if they * To say that time and space are both “atomic,’ in the same sense ever as    ..robable-recover them, and return to

possessors, fiom whom they robbed them, the losses which, by their qie various kinds of total relative and absolute-space energies grouped depredations, energy-exchanges undergo. If, then, the total together, or supposed to be grouped together, as physical agencies of this energies concerned in gravitation—which is the most persistent¹ or that known or conjectured “ mode of motion.”

oii

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the fact related, that when a small high-st was put to work at a pit-top, a loss of

the air’s

lating powers it may accomplish planetary revolutions; nor any indication whatever that motion in the absolute space contained within a corpuscle’s or “basic atom’s” ultra-chemical boundaries of smallness, can, by its single title only as a solitary energy of motion, give rise to rotations in mechanical objects which we study chemically or which we handle. Two vigours only can in this last case, as in the former one, accomplish rotative effects on ordinary matter placed as matter of measurable stature is placed in a Newtonian or relative domain of space; and they can only accomplish it by the two-fold energy of each vigour being able to produce translation in such matter. It was not needful to Newton’s purpose to explore and propound a system of laws of absolute motion, and of the vires or vigours possessed by total or individual energies of such motions applicable to mechanical problems involving friction, in order to present an illustrative example of the mechanics of frictionless or perfect motions in the field of its preeminently strictest occurrence in the heavens ; and the reason of the acquired simplicity of Newton’s laws is that in every force action of his system doing translative work, two vigours of total or absolute energies of motion combine together, one dwelling, if we please, in a medium or quasi-particle of two inner, and the other in a real particle of these, and the next outer grade of absolute space— infinity’s chain or succession of unfathomable partial space—links, or dimensions, with the result of throwing their rotative half vigours or potential half stores of energy into a form of stress or tension, energy, but not necessarily tension, of which is lost or gained if the two vigours’ half stores of actual energy of pace— instead of place—are gainers or losers during the linked or partial space action’s total energy exchange. Two adjoining superior and inferior scales of dimensions, I conceive, of absolute space’s endless chain of outer shell upon outer shell and inner kernel within inner kernel of these, furnish by themselves alone, as above described, when energy exchange between their vigours is perfect, frictionless, and reversible, the conservative, unwasting, or perpetual forms of mechanical action in a single Newtonian scale or partial link of space next external to them both ; the potential and actual energy stores exchanged in such an action being the observable and measurable sums of some invisible descriptions of energy of rotary motion of position or of place, and translatory motion of linear velocity or change of place, with which all motion in absolute space, if it were possible that we could by any use of human faculties define it exactly, would—were this accomplished— be shown and perceived to be conjointly and simultaneously endowed.

It is startling to reflect how near Sir William Thomson’s theory of vortex atoms, making them travelling vortices or smoke-rings in a boundless incompressible and frictionless sea of fluid—itself a structure of some sort, a semi-grade at least finer in its texture than the smoke-ring—comes to this ideal outline of the real source of Newtonian reactions. For in such atoms an energy of rotary, and one of translatory, motion, neither of them accurately, but only approximately calculable by mathematical Newtonian principles, form together the total energy of at least the coarser textured or major structured part of the fabric, and two such vortex atoms, when variously brought near to each other, exhibit mutual attractions and repulsions. Although it is not the conception— reached from a different starting point—which I have for the last two years formed for myself, of the mode of association together in absolute or general phorotic motion, of rotary and translatory energy-representatives of place—or of stationary pulse—and of locomotion or of progressive pace, yet no objection with which I can acquiesce advanced upon the grounds of its not being extensible mathematically by Newtonian laws of motion and of force, without crumbling away and collapsing into itself, to wider physical consequences, can be raised to throw valid suspicion on the soundness of the vortex theory of atoms ; because to expect a hypothesis to reproduce correctly and completely all Newtonian reactions, and it might be also possibly some others which the Newtonian range of mechanics does not include, when only treated itself by Newtonian laws and principles of motion and mechanics, must surely be an illogicism to which it is an unfairness on the abstract—and not partial and approximate—mode of treatment of the hypothesis to subject it for its trial.

Sound-mills—an account of many curious forms of which is given by Professor S. P. Thompson in Nature, vol. 29, p. 3G3— producing attractions and repulsions of plain and perforated discs with vibrations of tuning-forks in air, and the similar effects illustrating magnetic attractions and repulsions of pulsating diaphragms in water, shown by Professor Bjoerknes at the Electrical Exhibi-coarser-

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known example of vigour-coupling in mechanics—should, like other couplings of total energies of absolute space motions, all eventually fall a prey to friction, and if the universal scavenger-in-chief, heat, collecting all the wastes of this and other total energies of relative or partial motions, should eventually acquire them all, then being itself exposed to no frictional predations, the final condition of the material universe, as bounded and contained within our one firmament or interminable scale of observation, will be that of a system of perfect frictionless perpetual motions such as astronomical systems appreciably exemplify, but vastly more varied, inasmuch as whatever the form of mill connection is by which gravitation exchange of energy is maintained in its persistency, a greater or smaller cortege of other modes of connection of vigour-coupled mills or atoms certainly exists, grouping their relative or partial motions into gas molecules, liquid streams or filaments, crystalline and other solid elastic symmetries, and the like, all which, though far from perfect and unalterable by fricti as we know them, either in themselves or in their connections with each other, would be rendered so, and would pursue a joint course —whatever that course may be—perpetually, should all the universe of our partial material horizon ever acquire by heat’s dealings of adjustment among the wasteful motion-colonies one common, and thenceforth invariable—or what we would, at least, deem likely to remain thenceforth invariable—temperature.

But the theme takes a new departure here, and were I to enter upon its rougher paths of heat’s relation to friction in colonies of motion, its distributive hold upon their coupled vigours of action in relative space regions, its working between the fixed total energies or vigours of atoms and firmaments in adjoining three-grade horizons, like a “ mill” between two adjoining single-grade ones, with actual and potential energy sums of its own description remaining invariable, and with a faculty at least among its constituent grouped motions, of similarly making friction of gases, liquids, and solids, against themselves and each other in streams, self-lubricating, I believe, in certain conditions of their thorough-flows and actuations, more pages of consequences than the above short and very scanty outline gives would be unfolded from the contemplation of motion in absolute space as being half stationary and turning, and half diffusive and progressive at every fixed atomic “ point ” and firmamental precinct of its expanse, than from the little tried and tested bearing which it has yet obtained on practical points of physics I would either at present venture to premise or presume to indite unnecessarily about it in this connection. But I should not omit to say that consideration some two years ago of the nature of mechanical actions in a problem of three bodies led me incidentally to notice in some simple cases a practical but not exactly mechanical method of communicating total energy to two mutually attracting bodies by a properly timed use of velocity and attraction for one of them—that is to say, of total energy—in a third body ; or a process, in other words, similar in its description to Carnot’s cyclein a heatengine, converting, however, not heat into mechanical work, or viceversd, reversibly, by changes of temperature and capacity in a working substance connected to heat sources, but total energy of a mechanical time-ball, so to speak, or chronometric officiator and executor of energy, capable of imparting total energy in its half-instalments by turns, at the proper times, to the working pair of bodies, and so conveying energy in toto to the other pair, whence it can receive it back again unabated by the same time-regulated process if the order of alternate use of the two kinds of half-energy in the four-parted cycle is reversed. In two papers communicated in March of this year to the Berlin Academy of Sciences (“ Sitzungs-Berichte,” vol. for 1884, pp. 159 and 311), and in a third paper in June or July last, Professor von Helmholtz has examined and treated mechanical examples of such cases generally, under the title of “Studien zur Statik Mono-cyclisher Systeme,” pointing out the resemblance of this conferment of total energy to harmoniously moving “ monocyclic” systems to heat’s conversion into mechanical work by cyclic operations ; and showing in his third paper, that however large a part Carnot’s cycle thus plays in the general energetics of mechanics by holding in its grasp, as heat does, the stores of total energy of extensive systems, yet the general problem of intercepting work of friction from passing, apparently without check, into inner motions of absolute space, which heat solves and effects in its reversible processes, in systems moving no matter how unharmoniously, is not met by it. It appears to be the equivalent in the perfect mechanics of a single firmament of atoms only, of heat’s wider yet just similar properties and functions of knitting together, by the roaming and ingredient atoms of their joint horizon-level, many such firmaments into working atoms and monocycling systems of a horizon one grade vaster in dimensions or level than their common one.

If monocyclic motion, however, is dealt with only by rules and methods belonging to one firmament’s relative or partial-space, and not to a whole horizon-level’s absolute-space mechanics, it will not be surprising if its capabilities are insufficient to explain the properties of heat. For embracing in its grouped motions those of horizons within horizons without number, heat can muster in its moving ranks periods of time small enough to be in harmony with any cyclic process, and thus store up in them conferments of total energy wasted, for partial space purposes, in the horizon in which they were mechanically imparted, but sinking inwards by disintegration of their conflicting periods to grade within grade of the interdiffusing tribes of atoms on which they act, until heat, the “monocyclic” motion-system of all grades ranged inwards in any attritional motion-system—as, for instance, in a mine and fan together with its air stream—in a tangible horizon of mechanics, intercepts the deserter.* But it may yet be, or it is at least conceivable— although I will not say that experiments have as yet established it to my mind as a clear certainty—that particular circumstances of construction in a rotating fan, in conjunction with the air-ways of a mine and the stream of air flowing through them, may be favourable to some form of monocyclic motion in the whole system together, and to a larger proportion of reversible employment, to the exclusion of friction, and to a more effective retention in the mechanical horizon in which it is used of the vigour, or “ total ” driving energy on the current—for the more of this is conserved, or kept “ perfect,” the less will go as “ work” to heat—in some centrifugal fans applied to a given air-course than in others.

This element—if it exists—of a fan’s special serviceability for different uses, does not affect the general correctness of employing in all cases the rule of measuring work in air, set forth with excellent clearness in his letter in The Engineer, of December 12th, by Professor Unwin ; by the change of encratic head given by the fan—in which he has expressed my meaning perfectly, though it is more true in blast fans than in exhaust fans that the velocity of discharge into, or, in other words, the friction through the atmosphere, is useful work in the circuit. But it grafts itself on additionally to that principle, as a factor of the independent question, what current different fans with the same blade-tip speed and rise of encratic head will give on the same air way by virtue—if it exists—of their different efficacies of overcoming air friction against walls, and air friction against itself in unexpanding jets respectively which probably together form a friction-vigour of two halves accompanying each other in very different proportions in one air-course or circuit from what they are present in another.

Not only careful measurements, but very full particulars of them would be needed to decide this point. Among these the direction of presentation of the tube-opening of a water-gauge to a current is not, I think—as Mr. Snowdon, in his letter to The Engineer of December 5th, surmises—ever a matter of very serious account in the gentle currents of mines, and of nearly all ventilating fans. In forced draughts of very high speeds, on the contrary, it sometimes presents exaggerated features, and in the narrow neck of a glass aspirator, through which air was being drawn from the atmosphere

an effective vacuum of Gem. of mercury maintained constantly in a large gasholder, I once obtained in a mercurial gauge open to the atmosphere in one branch, and ending in a capillary glass tube in the other branch, half filling with its open end the narrow constriction of the aspirator where it pointed inwards, or with the direction of the current’s flow, an effective vacuum of 10 cm. of mercury below the atmosphere, or 2jf times the effective vacuum which produced it. As this could scarcely exceed that due to the velocity of the air in the constriction which gave rise to it, wc may presume that that velocity was at least \' 2$, or 1*03 times the velocity due to the vacuum in the holder, and therefore the momentary power in the air in the constriction, calculated by its velocity, was (1G3):I, or 4'33 times the driving power which was actually being used upon the current. This shows remarkably that neither one nor two times can be a real limit to the ratio which the momentary power may sometimes bear far more considerably than either to the driving power employed with higher driving vacua; up to lOin. of mercury, the augmentation of vacuum declined slowly, being still 20in. at the latter point, or twice the driving vacuum; beyond this point, it abated very rapidly, one gauge nearly overtaking the other at 27in. or 28in. of effective vacuum, and I was unable to obtain, as I had hoped, high vacua like those of Mr. Crookes’ radiometers with the use of very moderate vacua to produce them. Friction seemed to gain a constantly increasing ascendency over the current as its speed increased, and to offer an abnormal increase of obstruction to it about and after the point when its equivalent head was 20in. of mercury. Sufficiently copious air-fiows of considerable velocities have not been at my disposal for examining conditions of wind gauge with ordinary sized gauge-tubes in wide tubes without constrictions ; but with draughts in narrow straight tubes produced by Gin. or 8in. of water round a slender glass gauge-tube differently presented to them they were very inconsiderable. A sure way of avoiding them, and of testing an air draught’s real barometric pressure at any place, whatever position a gauge-tube may have of direction or exposure to air velocity at its mouth, is to draw the latter to a point—if practicable—and to thrust the point into the centre of a small ball of cotton lamp-wick or worsted. The tighter the ball surrounds the point of the tube the better, as it is guarded thereby from draught effects which cannot penetrate the ball, while all through the porous wool the air assumes exactly the surrounding barometric pressure, and the tube mouth or point at the centre is promptly sensitive to the very smallest variations which this undergoes. A wool-capped tube shows no changes close to obstacles, although the open tube placed there when draught speeds are very high may vary an eighth of an inch or more by transverse velocities.

Sound waves of elasticity, whether stationary or progressive, and expansion by rarefaction at any point of low pressure and steady current, can scarcely in their normal capacities, as Mr. Snowdon suggests in his letter, affect a gauge—the first because they are pulsating and everywhere devoid of permanent depressions, and the Becond because air’s change of density by pressure in pit currents is so infinitesimal that no measurable load or relief of pressure can anywhere arise recognisable in mine currents from change of relative weight in the air to be moved. On the other hand, sound-waves, or some kind of sound-mills, perhaps of rippling vibrations, like what mix air so remarkably with issuing gas jets to the explosive point in sensitive flames, may have a cumulative effect in the action of certain fans along a long airway, by freeing the clinging air from the wall sides, and lessening its friction on them. Instead of a fast decreasing water gauge, however, at a little distance from a fan, this cause would tend to produce an abnormally constant water gauge on the approach towards the fan, by lessening the resistance principally there ; so that as either an increase of resistance or an increase of velocity seems to be indicated both by Mr. Snowdon’s and by Mr. A. L. Steavenson’s observations and experience, a different source of the peculiarity must be looked for.

In the description given by Mr. A. L. Steavcnson in his letter in this week’s Engineer—December 12tli—of an example of such a case,

reed fan of 12ft. diameter 1*28 - 07, or 0’58in. of water gauge, was observed between a point 10ft. back from the fan on the surface, and the partition doors at the bottom of a wide upcast shaft, 02 fathoms deep, between the intake and return currents there, admits, however, as Mr. Steavenson in his letter has stated his own conviction, of no very difficult explanation; for without making any allowance for friction in the interval, if we assume—as the area is not stated in the letter—that the drift on the surface at 10ft. from the fan, where the w.g. l'28in. was recorded, had a sectional area somewhere about equal to a clear round opening 8ft. in diameter, or 50 square feet, volume of 149,400 cubic feet per minute would pass it with a velocity of 3000ft. per minute, requiring a head of entry, to give it this speed, of just the superfluous water gauge—0'58in.—observed, if it came with no material velocity up the shaft; and that many times such an excess over the working or driving w.g. of 07in. really used can be developed by air to force itself through a narrow opening, was clearly shown above by the exactly corresponding experiment with an aspirator. The shafts and air-ways being all double the area above assumed, the already existing velocity in them would reduce the needful head of entry to the supposed sectional aperture on the surface by a quarter, but will still leave three-quarters of the observed excess w.g. accounted for by ordinary laws of frictionless air-flow, and some friction in the shaft besides, if the above area is somewhere near the truth, would account for the remainder.

More particulars, both of Mr. R. Snowdon's observations, whose zealous and successful original efforts in this direction give me great pleasure and satisfaction to read his recite 1 of, and of Mr. Steavenson’s experienced and observant notes of these and similar peculiarities, as well as the attention of other mining engineers to them are, however, exceedingly desirable, as many unsuspected and unknown behaviours without doubt exist in fans’ actions and efficiencies, with which only uses and employments of them for various designs and in different circumstances and conditions can be at all hopefully expected and confidently trusted to make us thoroughly acquainted and practically familiar.

47, Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne,    A. S. HERSCHKL.

December 13th.

STEAM BOILER TESTS.

Sir,—Your excellent and straightforward article on boiler tests will do much good. Such results as those put forward by Mr. Engert are discouraging to engineers, who had thought themselves fortunate in being able to approach as near to theoretical efficienoy as possible when they have been able to evaporate 121 lb. of water from and at 212 deg. per pound of fuel. I should like Mr. Engert to answer the questions put to him in a letter to a contemporary—Iron, Dec. 13th—by Mr. B. H. Tlrwaite. If heanswers those questions we shall be able to see what sort of fuel he has been using to give such wonderful, but I must say doubtfully correct, results.    Veritas.

Roundhay, near Leeds, December 20th.

[For continuation of Letters see page 487.]

South Kensington Museum.—Visitors during the week ending Dec. 20th, 1884:—On Monday, Tuesday, and Saturday, free, from 10 a.m. to 10 p.m., Museum, 81G0; mercantile marine, Indian section, and other collections, 33G8. On Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, admission 6d., from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., Museum, 1G5G; mercantile marine, Indian section, and other collections, 1094. Total, 14,278. Average of corresponding week in former years, 10,036. Total from the opening of the Museum, 23,594,347.

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BOSTON DOCK.

The Port of Boston, situated on the mouth of the river Witham shortly before it enters the Wash on the east coast, was j at one time one of the chief places for the import and export of goods from Flanders and the Low Countries. Large quantities of wine from the Rhine and the Elbe for the use of the numerous monasteries established in this part of the country, and merchandise from the Continent, were delivered at Boston and Lynn on their way to Lincoln, Wattingham, Northampton, Chester, and other towns ; corn, wood, leather, and other goods being exported in return. In the thirteenth century Boston stood only second to London in the amount paid for the duty levied on the merchants, and raised a larger amount of customs duty than any port in the kingdom, the amounts paid respectively by the towns on the east coast being—Boston, £2574 ; London,

£1963 ; Hull, £707 ; and Lynn, £367. Subsequently trade became diverted to other places, and Boston and Lynn declined as ports; but a considerable trade still remained till the increased draughts of ships and the difficulties of navigation and the want of floating accommodation were gradually reducing these places to the condition of inland towns. The navigation up to Lynn having been improved by the works of the Norfolk Estuary Company, a dock was constructed there and opened in 1869. The amount of shipping entering the port has steadily

increased since the opening of the dock, till the accommodation let to Mr. Monk, of Liverpool, for <£96,052, in addition to which

not being sufficient, it has been found necessary to construct a second dock.

The river Witham, which passes through Boston, is the outfall for the drainage of a very large area of fen land. Owing to the condition of the outfall of the river, which found its way to the Wash through a mass of shifting sands, it afforded a very imperfect discharge, and in heavy rains the low lands were constantly flooded.

In 1880 an Act of Parliament was obtained for improving the outfall, and an Outfall Board was constituted, consisting of representatives from the Witham Drainage and Black Sluice Trust, two principal drainage systems, and the Boston Harbour Commissioners. The course of the river for about five miles had been already trained and straightened by the harbour authorities, and from the termination of these works a new cut, about three miles in length, has been made through the land to deep water, as advised by Captain Huddart so long ago as 1793, and subsequently at different intervals by Mr. Rennie and Sir John Hawkshaw. This new cut is 130ft. wide at the bottom, with slopes of to 1, and has about 27ft. of water at high-water of ordinary spring tides, the width at the top of the cutting, which is level with ordinary high-water, being 300ft. The work has been carried out under the superintendence of Mr. J. E. Williams, the engineer to the Witham Drainage Commissioners, the largest contributing body. The contract for the work was a large sum has been paid for land, compensation, and other matters. These works are now nearly completed, the water having been diverted into the new channel since last spring, and the old channel having been permanently closed for some time. The improvement of the river rendered feasible the construction of a dock at Boston, and from its geographical position, as the nearest port to the coalfields of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire on the one side and the Continent on the other, is exceedingly well situated as a port for the export of coals, salt, machinery, &c., to the Continent, and the import therefrom of timber, grain, agricultural produce, and general merchandise.

In 1381 the corporation of the town, in their capacity as harbour commissioners, obtained an Act authorising them to construct a dock, the money to be raised on the security of the harbour tolls and borough revenue. The Bill was strongly opposed in the House of Lords by a company called the Ocean Dock Company, who in the same session were promoting the construction of a dock at a point lower down the river. They failed, however, to prove their case, and the Bill for the Boston Dock was passed.

The works for the construction of the dock were commenced in the beginning of the following year, and are now nearly completed, the dock having already received several vessels. The works have been carried out from the plans and under the superintendence of Mr. W. H. Wlieeler, M.I.C.E.; the engineer to the Commissioners, Mr. Abernethy acting throughout as

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facing being alternately 1ft. Gin. and 3ft. The invert and platform is of freestone set in Portland cement, the stones for the invert being 2ft. in depth, no stone containing less than 7cubic feet. The cill and hollow quoins are of Cornish granite, from Messrs. Freeman’s quarries. Sheet lead was placed between the joints of the stones of the hollow quoins, Gin. in depth, projecting from the face, and afterwards caulked into the joints. The stones for the cills run about 5ft. long by 4ft. deep by 2ft. wide, no stone having loss than 35 cubic feet. A

The sluices in the walls are formed with freestonefor quoins,

copings, &c., with granite for the cills and sides and top of dry gun-cotton detonator, exposed under water for two hours or culvert, where the doors work. These are of greenheart, grooved more, and then exploded with apparently the normal force, and tongued and bolted through the centre. To prevent any Gunpowder will not explode when wet; requiring, therefore, a tendency for the water to creep under the lock it was intended Perfectly water-tight case; while gun-cotton is believed to destroy to drive rows of sheeting piles across the face, but owing to the ™ore HtrH,1«¹>’ moderately wet than when dry This is for

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sun and Idled with concrete. 1 he dock gates are of pitch pine, tion of the gun-cotton. Gunpowder explodes immediately when with greenheart heel and mitre prists and bottom ribs. Each exposed to flame in a moderately confined state, such as a ship’s gate is 29ft. Gin. long by 32ft. high, and 2ft. 7in. deep in the magazine, while wet gun-cotton will not explode if exposed to widest part. The lower part is solid, with two beams bolted flame, or red-hot iron. For these reasons gunpowder is preferable together, and the upper part is planked with 7in. by .‘Jin. pitch f°r artillery, in producing less strain upon the walls of the gun, pine. The heel post rests on a socket struck to a radius of 11 in., w,lile gun-cotton, by its greater explosive power, is preferable for working on a pivot 12in. in diameter, with chilled face struck to torl>edo service, and by its greater factor of safety, superior to all a radius of 7iu., the upper part being held in place by wrought other known high explosives for storage on shipboard. The great iron anchor straps Sin. square. The rollers are 18in. in diameter, I,ei?Ut₁°f the    ^ 1?eli° e-8 lt₁1,flconve,nient.and «lu,n^

of cast iron with* chilled faces, the axles working in a cast iron    S *** P ’    “ C°Uld

rocking saddle, to one end of which    the    greeuheart spear is    The destructive    range of an    ordinary torpedo against a strong

attached,    h oot bridges are fixed    over    each    pair of gates, made    target, such as the    sides of the    modern man-of-war, is very small,

of oak, carried on wrought iron saddles. Mooring rings are probably not more than Gft. It is, therefore, readily understood, fixed in the coping of the walls, and secured by a wrought iron when exposed to the hazard of a torpedo attack, an operator might rod carried down through cast iron tubes to the back of the well suppose his torpedo had exploded close to the object, and yet concrete. At the corner of the dock, and along the lock, cast be outside of its destructive range. Hence the only sure method is to iron bollards are fixed. Mushroom moorings with sheaves are emPloy a torpedo that will explode by contact; for then it is also fixed on the coping of the lock. Two wrought iron buoys, a8SUrued that™e t?rpedv°’.Vy lts exPf«sion. exerted its greatest

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,    .) ,    ' "    ^ <><    shackles fixed to laige Torpedo Station comprise both service and contact. They contain

concrete blocks on the bottom. 1 lie space round the dock and about the same charge, viz., 31^ lb., and are alike in all respects, quays is    ballasted and covered    with    gravel for a width of    except the primer    case of the    latter contains a circuit breaker,

50ft. A    smaller jetty extends    from    the    outer walls of the    closed only on contact. The    gun-cotton, however, is stored in

lock, and in a line with it    for 300ft.,    for use    in    warping    metal cylinders, instead of being directly packed in the torpedo can,

vessels in, and dolphins and moorings provided in    the    channel    exposing it to disintegration, making it in mass more difficult to

of the river.    ascertain its condition, and requiring a heavier case and more time

Nearly two miles of railway have been laid along the quays, <jo prepare it for service. These cylinders containing six discs of

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goods yard of this company being on the side of the river ; jn each 11 J    a    8

7snb^to t4!o'v-!rdkfil'17Trty; ^'You-T °! ,stetd’    The service case resembles a drum of light sheet iron, with two

i i n' i -V-    ’ i ' ' ^creosoted Baltic:fir sleepers, 8ft. llin. thin malleable iron heads, the top one movable. When needed for

a ..    jln:’ by cast iron chairs weighing 301b. each, the service, the top is taken off, its charge of six cylinders dropped

rails being fished with wrought    iron plates    weighing 22 j lb. per    into their places, leaving an annular space in the centre of about

Pair- ...    3:|in. diameter. Into this is placed the primer case, containing

The railway is carried by a single line across the river on a only dry gun-cotton equal in amount to about one-third the charge swing-bridge 126ft. long, 13ft. wide, with two clear openings of wet. The dry is exploded by a mineral fulminate detonator of 55ft. each. The bridge works are an oval cast iron pier 16ft. enclosed in it, which also contains the electric fuse bridge. The wide, 1J metal, sunk in the bed of the river well into the wires from the latter pass through a water cap in the cover of the

This

precaution must be closely observed, for the fulminate cannot be depended u, on to explode the cotton if wet.

The torpedo-holder is a light tripod uniting into a single piece

hard boulder clay and filled with Portland cement concrete, primer and the tatter mart be absolutely water-tight.

The main girders are of wrought iron plates 7ft. deep in the    Drecau lon mu8    8 c 08e v ° serve    .or    e u mina    e can

centre, and 3ft. 9in. at the ends, and 1ft. Gin. wide. The bridge j

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works on twelve cast iron rollers 10m. diameter, running on    called the knob.    The case is easily and strongly held    by the three

east iron tramway. The centre pivot is of steel, Gin, diameter,    legs, and the knob    fits into the end    of the    spar from which    it    is

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SITE OF NEW DOCKS AT BOSTON.

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| they proceed to point out various weighty objections thereto, and recommend that Mr. Shield’s scheme be abandoned. The report thus continues “There remains only Sir Joseph Bazalgette’s proposals, and we are of opinion that if your Board is to discharge the duty for which it was formed, you have no option but to accept them. Their execution will be costly, but they will he final. The cost will be greatly lessened if other districts outside yours, in equal difficulties with you, will join you, and in that case Sir Joseph Bazalgette informs us that an extra expense of £64,000 spent in enlarging the size of the main sewer will increase its carrying capacity 76| per cent., and we think it would be wise and prudent that you should give them the opportunity of joining you.” The committee recommend that his proposals be approved and adopted by the Board; and that all other necessary arrangements be made for submitting the scheme to the Local Government The report of the committee, after being very fully discussed by the Joint Board, was adopted, though there was considerable opposition, the meeting being a very stormy one,

consulting engineer. Mr. C. 1). W. Parker was resident engineer for the principal part of the time, and on his obtaining the appointment of assistant engineer at the Hull Docks, he was succeeded by Mr. J. R. Allen.

The first contract was let to Mr. W. Rigby for £80,200, and included a dock 825ft. long by 450ft. wide at the widest end, the area being nearly seven acres; a lock 300ft. long by 50ft. wide, with two pairs of gates, the depth of water at the cill at ordinary spring tide being 25ft.; the excavation and dredging of the bank at the entrance to the lock ; a swing bridge across the river, 120ft. long, to connect the dock with the goods yard of the Great Northern Railway ; two miles of railway, with jetties and other works, dock offices, lock-keeper’s house, &c.

The upper stratum of soil on the site where the dock has been excavated consists of brick clay, and a large quantity of this lias been burnt in situ for ballast for the concrete quay and roads. Below this clay was a thin layer of peat and sand, and below this, hard drift clay of a greyish-yellow colour, mixed with chalk; below which, again, at about the level of the required foundations of the walls and lock, was a very hard, compact layer of boulder clay of a leaden colour, embedded in which were large boulders and septaria. The soil obtained from the excavation was used in raising the land round to the required heights for the quays and railway. The walls of the dock are 32ft. (jin. in height, from the toe to capping; 13ft. 6in. thick at the base and 6ft. at top, having a batter on the face of 1 in 4 for the first 10ft. above the floor, and 1 in 16 for the upper part. They are constructed of concrete formed of 5 parts of burnt clay ballast, 1 part of sand, 2 of sea shingle, to 1 of Portland cement. As the concrete was deposited, rough blocks of concrete stone, as taken from the quarries near Sleaford, were embedded, the quantity forming about one-fourth of the whole mass, no stone being allowed to be near the face or within Gin. of another stone. The lower face of the walls was finished fair and smooth, by working the concrete against the wooden panels, which were washed with soap and water. The upper face of the walls, where the ship will come in contact with them, for 12ft. in depth is faced with brickwork in cement, in alternate blocks 2ft. Sin. and 1ft. 2in. deep respectively, the front courses being Staffordshire blue bricks in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, top is capped with freestone, 3ft. wide by 1ft. Gin. deep, set in cement, with cement dowels,

3in. by. 3in. The front edge is rounded to a radius of Sin. The foundations and braces of the lock are made with concrete similar to that of the dock walls, the walls of the lock being faced throughout with Staffordshire blue bricks, the blocks of brickwork for the

space

of Gin. on the ace of the joints was run with lead and caulked.

the cup being also of steel. Tram plates, for use of carts and horses, are fixed on the floor. The bridge was constructed for Mr. lligby by Messrs. Handyside, of Derby, as a sub-contract. After being used by the contractor for the conveyance of the greater part of the materials required for the dock, it was tested by placing two of the goods engines of the Great Northern Railway placed funnel to funnel on the centre of the span, and afterwards running them rapidly across.

Of the building and hydraulic machinery we shall give illustrations and description in another impression.

TORPEDO EQUIPMENT OF THE NAVY.

The report of the Naval Bureau of Ordnance briefly refers to the work of Captain T. O. Selfridge, who was relieved on the 1st of November from the charge of the Torpedo Station at Newport. Under the administration of Captain Selfridge, as wc have before stated, a complete system of gun-cotton ship and boat torpedoes has been perfected under the direction of the Bureau of Ordnance; and, as the report shows, the manufacture of gun-cotton, the first of the kind in this country, has been successfully initiated. Instead of two classes of torpedoes for ships and boats, but one is now issued, carrying the same charge—31£ lb.—of gun-cotton, equivalent to 125 lb. of powder. "While the explosive effect has been increased, the weight of the charged torpedo has been reduced from 380 lb. to about 75 lb. Gunpowder differs from intro-glycerine and its various compounds, known under the name of dynamite, hercules, giant, atlas, and other powders, as also guncotton, in not exploding instantaneously, but simultaneously— that is, the whole mass is not ignited at once, and consequently to obtain the maximum effect from gunpowder it must be enclosed in a very strong and, therefore, heavy case.

On the other hand, gun-cotton has at least four times the explosive effect of gunpowder, weight for weight, and is so violent and instantaneous in its action as to need no retaining case beyond the incompressibility of the water which surrounds it when ' mersed. Experiments at the Torpedo Station would tend to conclusively prove this, as well that a maximum saturation of the guncotton does not affect its explosive condition. In these experiments, discs of gun-cotton were stowed in a canvas bag around

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fired. The contact torpedo case has arms projecting from the outside of the bottom cover, which are connected with the interior of the primer case in which is the circuit breaker. When any one of these arms are struck, it will, by an ingenious contrivance close this break, and if the firing battery is connected in the circuit, the torpedo will immediately explode.

A single wire only is employed when the torpedo is to be fired on contact, but a second is also connected to the torpedo, but not to the battery. Should it become desirable to explode the torpedo without waiting for contact, this second wire is attached to the other pole of the battery. The arrangement is such that in this case the circuit breaker is cut out, a complete electrical circuit is established, and the torpedo fired at will.

Until recently the usual method of exploding boat torpedoes have been from wooden spars. These spars have but one fixed rest, the inner end is secured by a chain, and cocks up in the air when the torpedo is immersed. Consequently, the torpedo is often thrown by the pressure of the water head off, or thwart the bows, the angle of immersion is unnecessarily groat, large diameter and great water resistance are required for requisite strength, and the spar is frequently broken after one explosion. The steel spars and boat fittings now issued in their place have reduced many of these objections to a minimum.

The spars are in three sections—two of steel, and the outer an inexpensive one of wrought iron, designed to protect the steel section from injury, and quickly replaced. They are jointed together like a fish-rod, making a single length of 41ft. The steel sections are thin tubes 4$in. and 31m. diameter, and are reinforced by forcing thin tubes into them in such a way that the reinforce fits very closely the outside tube.

The boat fittings consist of a T-iron bar across the gunwale close to the stern, to whose ends guide bars are rivetted. In these guides, by means of a chain, slides a traveller, through which the spar passes; some feet aloft on each gunwale is secured a swivel clutch with top and bottom rollers, in which the spar rests, and which allows the spar to assume any angle, while it is firmly held in position. The spar rests on rollers, and if the traveller is triced up, it can with its torpedo attached be run out its full length and carried in this position above the water till the moment before attack, when, if the tricing chain is let go, the torpedo will at once reach the desired immersion.—Army and Navy Gazette.

Fata r. Colliery Explosion.—An explosion occurred early yesterday morning at Pwllcarn Colliery, Garw Valley, Glamorganshire. Three men were descending at the time. One was blown off the “ bowk,” and, falling 100 yards, was killed. The other two men were rescued but were very much burnt.

Launch of the Mauneta.—An interesting launch took place on Saturday, the 20th December, of a new cable steamer, named the Magneta, from the building yard of Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons, Govan, Glasgow, the property of the Eastern Extension, Australasia, and China Telegraph Company, of 66, Old Broad-street, London. This vessel is entirely built of steel, under special survey at Lloyd’s, 100 Al, the boilers and machinery being certified by the Board of Trade. The speed of this vessel is estimated at thirteen knots, on a very small consumption of fuel, her engines being of the most improved type. The vessel is sub divided into cellular water-tight compartments under cable tanks, engines, and round the tunnel, all independently connected by a complete system for pumping up and pumping out these tanks while at work laying cable. The cable tanks are likewise connected to the engine-room donkey pumps and with steam-driven Downton pumps for discharging the water in the tanks overboard, andforother purposes. The vessel has condensing appliances for distilling 5000 gallons of water daily, which, should tho vessel be required at any time for trooping purposes, would be a desirable feature. The cable tanks are four in number, being built on the top of the water ballast tanks. The vessel has three water-tight compartments forward, besides tho ordinary bulkheads, so that in the event of one compartment being punctured the vessel would still be safe. The engines are 100-horse power compound, the boilers being built wholly of steel by Messrs. Napier. The windlass, steam winches, steering gear, and sounding gear are of tho newest design, by first-class manufacturers. The cable machinery consists of a compound duplex machine with rolled steel frames, with steel cranks, and helical wheels, so arranged that picking up ami paying out can be going on at the same time. This gear is manufactured by Messrs. Johnson and Phillips, of Victoria Works, Charlton, Kent. Tho vessel is lit up with upwards of one hundred 20-candle power incandescent lamps, and is fitted with dynamo engines, and four dynamos and search lamps by the same firm. The Magneta will make her trial trip about the 1st of February next, and will afterw. rds proceed to the Thames to take in cable for Singapore, her destined head-quarters. The vessel is built to the design of Mr. Joseph liirnie, of Fenchurch-avenue, London, and we trust will form a creditable addition to the company’s fleet.

Drainage of the Lower Thames Valley.—An important special meeting of the Lower Thames Valley Main Sewerage Board was held at Kingston on Saturday, to consider a report of the Works and Parliamentary Committee with reference to the future action of the Board in the matter of the drainage of the united district. The report explained very minutely the schemes of Mr. Wentworth Shields and Sir Joseph Bazalgette, which had been referred to them. The proposal of Mr. Shields is to collect the sewage of the contributory places, and conduct it to land situate partly in the parish of Twickenham and partly in the parish of Isle-worth, there to be dealt with by a similar process of defecation as that proposed by Messrs. Mansergh and Mellis for the Mortlake scheme, and the effluent water to bo taken through a special channel into the Thames, and discharged there about three-quarters of a mile below Richmond Bridge. The total cost of the works is estimated at £329,550, which could be repaid in sixty years by a rate of 7'3d. in the pound. The scheme of Sir Joseph Bazalgette proposes the total diversion of the sewage of the district from all the districts to land at Crossness immediately contiguous to the southern outfall of the main drainage works of the Metropolitan-Board of Works. 1/and for two pumping stations will be required on the way, the one at Mortlake to lift the sewage of the low-lying portions of Barnes, and the other near Sutton to send the sewage on by gravitation to Crossness, and the owners of the land in both cases, as also of the land required at Crossness, have agreed to sell the land to the Board, so that the carrying out of Sir Joseph Bazalgette’s scheme will also rest with the Local Government Board, and no application to Parliament be necessary. Sir Joseph Bazalgette estimates the cost of carrying out his scheme at £563,711, and that it will be repaid in sixty years by a rate of 8'81d. in the pound. The committee state that if they had nothing else to consider but the economy of these two proposals, their voices would necessarily favour of Mr. Shield’s, but

Board.

The Birmingham Tramways and Omnibus Company is applying to Parliament for power to construct tramways in Birmingham and certain adjoining districts. The works authorised by the Bill are to be completed within three years. There is also a clause authorising the company to work the cars by steam or other mechanical power, including wire ropes and cables, placed underground and moved by stationary engines. The capital of the company is fixed at £165,000 in £10 shares, and the borrowing power is restricted to £25,000.

In their trades report Messrs. Bolling and Lowe, speaking of

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In small blasts 1 lb. of powder will loosen about \\ tons; in large blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 2jj tons. One man can bore, with a bit lin. in diameter, from 50in. to lOOin. per day of 10 hours in granite, or 300in. to 400in. per day in limestone.

A SERIOUS boiler explosion occurred at the Pinkgate Ironworks, Rotherham. One man was fatally scalded and another lies at Rotherham Hospital in a critical condition. Four others were injured.

Official communication has been received at the Alexandra Palace from the Board of Trade, certifying that the exhibition to be held next year at the Alexandra Palace is an international exhibition.

Chromic iron and manganese ores have been found in New South Wales in considerable quantities, but cannot at present be profitably worked, owing to the cost of carriage to the seaboard. When some of the new railway lines are constructed this difficulty will be removed.

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RAILWAY MATTERS.

A private meeting of representatives of banking firms of Basle and Geneva was held at Basle on the 20th inst., to discuss the question of constructing a tunnel under the Simplon.

It is stated that the Spanish and French Commissioners signed in Paris, on the 17th inst., the protocol of the agreement for constructing the new lines of railway across the Pyrenees.

The directors of the Dudley and Stourbridge Steam Tramway Company have decided to recommend a dividend at the rate of 0 per cent, per annum on the first half year’s working, ending November 30th last.

The Stourbridge Western Railway Company is asking for Parliamentary powers authorising it to make and maintain a railway running from Wollaston to Kinver, near the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal. The line is to be three miles in length, and the capital to be raised is £06,000 in £10 shares. Borrowing powers are restricted to £22,000.

A bill for incorporating the Worcester and Brecon Railway Company, and for authorising the construction of railways and works in the counties of Worcester and Warwick, will be submitted to Parliament during the coming session. The capital of the company is fixed at £240,000 in £10 shares, and borrowing powers are sought to the extent of £80,000. The period in which the line is to be completed is fixed at five years.

The Railroad Gazette record of train accidents in October contains notes of 48 collisions, 54 derailments, and 3 other accidents; 105 accidents in all, in which 39 persons were killed and 170 injured. Ten collisions, 12 derailments, and one other accident caused death; 16 collisions and 12 other accidents caused lesser injuries. In all 23 accidents caused death, and 28 injuries but not death, leaving 54 accidents, or 51| per cent, of the whole number, in which there was no personal injury serious enough for record.

Three railway Bills have been before the South Australian Assembly. A debate on the second reading of the Bill to connect Willunga by rail with Adelaide was further adjourned. The Bill for a railway from Port Augusta to Phillips Ponds was carried through the second reading after a very brief debate. About the line from Petersburg to the New South Wales border there seemed to be little difference of opinion. It is expected to be one of the most profitable railways in the Colony; local traffic large, and the New South Wales traffic larger, and all go to increase the receipts, whether the produce goes to Adelaide, Port Pirie, or Port Augusta, and from whichever port the return carriage be derived.

The October accidents on United States rail ways may be classed as to their nature and causes as follows:—Collisions: Rear, 29; butting, 15; crossing, 4; total, 48. Derailments: Broken rail, 3; broken frog, 1; broken switch rod, 2; broken bridge, 3; spreading of rails, 2; broken wheel, 1; broken axle, 1; broken draw-head, 1; accidental obstruction, 3; cattle, 3; wash-out, 3; misplaced switch, 10; purposely misplaced switch, 1; rail purposely removed, 3; malicious obstruction, 2; unexplained, 15; total, 54. Other accidents: Boiler explosion, 1; cars burned while running, 1; loose door on freight car, 1. Total, 105. Six collisions were caused by misplaced switches, three by mistakes in orders or failure to obey them, two by trains breaking in two, two by cars run out of sidings upon the main line, one each by fog, by failure to use signals, and by a runaway engine.

Swiss papers announce the death at Berne of M. Gustave Bridel, formerly chief engineer of the St. Gothard Railway, and latterly one of the managers of the Berne, Jura, and Lucerne Railway. He was born at Bienni in 1827, received his early education at the College of Geneva, in 1845 entered the Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, and was one of the founders and first members of the French Society of Civil Engineers. M. Bridel afterwards entered the service of the Railway Company of the East, and in collaboration with his countrymen, Auguste Perdonnet, edited the Traite dcs Chemins de Fer. Returning to Switzerland in 1856, he undertook the construction of several railways, and planned and executed a great scheme for the prevention of floods in the region of the Jura. In 1878 the Federal Council sought Bridel’s help in the reorganisation of the St. Gothard enterprise and the preparation of new estimates for the completion of the undertaking. When the four subsidising Powers had agreed to make further grants for the construction of the line, Bridel was appointed engineer-in-chief, and so acquitted himself of his task that the total cost of the work was less than the original estimates. M. Bridel retained his position until last year, when failing health compelled him to resign.

street and road tramways, say. although only an about fifteen years growth in this country, have already had great success. As consumers of materials in iron and steel, carriages, and locomotives, they are playing an important part, capable of infinite development. The gravitation of population is always towards towns, and tramways have the advantage of starting with free land, and are unencumbered by stations, signals, telegraphs and other expensive requirements of railways. Traffic is rapidly increasing, and the use of locomotives effects a considerable saving as compared with the employment of horses. The following official figures illustrate the progress in the United Kingdom:—

30tli June, 1884.

Capital expended ..    £0,929,789

Miles........ 671

Horses ..

Locomotives Cars

Passengers carried .. 295,721,171 Net receipts ..    ..    £459,613

Average net earnings

At a recent meeting of the American Master Mechanics’ Association, the secretary read a communication from Mr. G. W. Stevens, stating that 247 worn-out locomotive tires were removed by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern during the year 1883. Average miles run per^in. wear, 8977; the measurement of wear being taken at half diameter of tire. In many cases the class of steel was not known. In the discussion Mr. MacKenzie said:—“We have two different kinds of tires, and I undertake to show the difference in wear of the tire between the first and second turnings or between the second and third. Engine 202, Class A—switching—has had her tires turned twice. Original thickness of tire, 3in.; thickness after first turning, 2^|in.; number of miles run before first turning, 31,647; miles run per -^in. wear, 4220; second turning, from 2J£in. to 2in.; miles made between turnings, 33,580; miles pier ^in. wear, 31)50; total mileage up to last turning 65,227 miles. The mileage between the two turnings was nearly the same. In another case, an engine in freight service, the mileage per i\in. wear before the first turning was 4440, the mileage before the first turning being 34,303 miles; the mileage pier Ain. wear between the first and second turnings was 6860; the total mileage was 78,708 miles. All our freight engines make a greater mileage after the first turning than they do before, while with the switch engines it is the reverse. Both of these turnings were made after about the time—about a year between the turnings. The tips generally found, without flat spots,”

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

The quantity of sugar produced in New South Wales in 1883 was 35,220,6401b.

A HORSE requires at least 2466 cubic feet of fresh air per hour. The army regulations allow in new stables, to each horse, 1605 cubic feet, and 100 square feet of floor space.

In Greater London, 3432 births and 2027 deaths were registered during the week ending the 13th inst., equal to annual rates of 35*2 and 20*8 per 1000 of the population.

The soap and candle industry in New South Wales is steadily increasing, there being 121,794 cwt. of soap, and 25,009 cwt. of candles produced in 1883, as against 106,962 cwt. of soap and 10,409 cwt. of candles in 1881.

The deaths registered during the week ending December 13th in twenty-eight great towns of England and "Wales corresponded to an annual rate of 22’6 per 1000 of their aggregate population, which was estimated at 8,762,354 persons in the middle of this year.

During the period 1855 to 1883 the gold received for coinage at the Sydney mint amounted to 13,633,504 oz., valued at £51,943,991; of which 6,703,357 oz., valued at £25,657,357, came from New South Wales, and the remainder from Queensland, New Zealand, Victoria, Tasmania, and elsewhere.

During the week ending November 29th, in thirty cities of the United States, having an aggregate population of 7,380,300, there were 3130 deaths, which is equivalent to an annual death-rate of 22*0 per 1000. The rate in the North Atlantic cities was 22 \5, in the Eastern 22*9, in the Lake 19*5, in the River 20'5, and in the Southern cities for the whites 21‘0, and for the coloured 31'4 per 1000.

The six healthiest places during the week ending the 13th inst. were Huddersfield, Birkenhead, "Wolverhampton, Portsmouth, Nottingham, and Bradford. In London last week the annual death rate per 1000 from all causes, which had been 22'3 and 22'9 in the two preceding weeks, declined to 21'3. During the first eleven weeks of the current quarter the death rate averaged 20'0 per 1000.

A specimen of Canadian lignite coal taken from the deposits in the Souris Valley, Manitoba, has recently been submitted for analysis to the Royal English School of Mines, with the following result:—Carbon, 52'30per cent.; hydrogen, 3*52; oxygen and nitrogen, 18*47; sulphur, 0*42; ash, 4*53 ; water, 20*70. The colour of the ash is buff. On being tested, the coal was found to ignite freely and burn with a good flame, the heat being intense. The district in which this coal is found in large quantities is shortly to be opened up by railway communication.

The Chmiker Zietung contains an article on “The Manufacture of Bone Meal,” by Professor Koenig:—“Until recently, bones intended for the production of bone meal were previously boiled or steamed for the purpose of extracting the fat; this method is now superseded by the benzene process, of which the author describes three modifications, employing the solvent respectively in form of vapour at ordinary pressure, Leuner’s process; or aided by heat and pressure, Seltsam’s process; or in vacuo with subsequent heating and pressure, Richter’s process. The analysis of a number of samples of bone meal gave results favourable to the benzene process, and the author points out that these latter, whilst effecting a more complete and profitable extraction of a substance—fat— valueless from a manurial point of view, has a further advantage over the steaming process in that it exerts no injurious effect upon the gelatine of the bones.”

An annual return of the shipbuilding on the Clyde in 1884 has been published by the Glasgow Herald. During the year the various firms on the Clyde launched 319 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 296,854 tons, being a falling off in tonnage of 122,810 as against 1883, of 95,080 tons as compared with 1882, and of 44,188 tons as compared with 1881. This result was only to be anticipated from the complete collapse in shipbuilding which set in towards the close of last year. In fact, it is surprising that the Clyde shipbuilders have turned out such a large amount of tonnage, which is actually 122,104 tons above the returns for 1879, the year of the last depression, and 55,740 tons above the returns for 1880, when the last spurt of activity set in. Of the vessels launched this year, 108 of 133,670 tons were built of steel, as against 129,651 tons in 1883,103,254 tons in 1882, and 66,609 tons in 1881. The prospects of the trade for the coming year are better than they were some time ago. By a diminished cost of production it is hoped that in the course of the year a partial revival will set in.

Some notes on the chemical alterations in green fodder during its conversion into ensilage were recently read before the Chemical Society by Mr. C. Richardson, U.S. Department of Agriculture, l’ro-fessor Kinch and Dr. Kellner have already published some observations which prove that during the conversion of grass, &c., into ensilage, a considerable increase in the quantity of non-albumenoid nitrogen takes place. The author of the present paper has confirmed this result in the case of maize. Thus, in a sample of original maize, the percentage of the total nitrogen which existed in the non-albumenoid condition amounted to 21*2; in ordinary dried fodder, 15*6 ; in ensilage, 44*6, 49*6; in ensilage from young maize, 53*3; from older maize, 47*1; so that in silos a large portion of the albumenoids is converted into non-albumenoid nitrogenous substance, while in the ordinary drying of fodder no such change takes place. This loss, according to the author, is due to the comparatively large amount of ammonia combined with the acids produced during the fermentation, and which is lost in drying the specimens for analysis. Thus, from 4000 parts by weight of ensilage, he obtained 8*66 of ammonium chloride = 2*266 of nitrogen. The remaining non-albumenoid nitrogen is probably present as an amide. Ensilage contains about 2 per cent, of acids, of which 0*6 is lactic, the rest acetic acid. The author gives many analyses of maize and ensilage, which exhibit great variations in composition, and show how unsafe it is to generalise from one experiment.

Some years ago, says the American Chemical Journal, Sainte-Claire Deville and Troost showed that hydrogen gas is capable of passing through platinum and iron at a red heat. Recently the latter of these investigators has shown that silver acts in a similar way towards oxygen. A tube of pure silver of 0*01 m. diameter and with walls 0*001 m. thick was inclosed in a somewhat larger platinum cylinder, and the whole heated in the vapour of boiling cadmium. On exhausting the silver tube with a Sprengel pump, and passing oxygen into the space around it, the gas was found to enter at a rate corresponding to 1*700 lit. per hour for each square metre of surface exposed. On passing air instead of oxygen into the outer chamber, oxygen with only a trace of nitrogen was found in the interior, but the rate of transfusion was diminished nearly one-half. By using a tube of slightly thinner walls, the gas entered much more rapidly. Instead of exhausting the tube, the author found it necessary only to pass slowly through it a stream of some other gas, such as carbon dioxide, although this lessened considerably the rate of transfusion. The oxygen was replaced by other gases, such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen, but they passed through the walls of the tube with extreme slowness. The author states in conclusion that this property of silver may some time be utilised to extract oxygen directly from the atmosphere. For this purpose, it would be necessary to expose a large surface by using coils of tubes with thin walls; and to use either an exhaust pump or a stream of carbon dioxide, which could be absorbed by an alkali, leaving pure oxygen,

MISCELLANEA.

Mr. Morley Heath.am, of Gilmonby Hall, Yorkshire, and of Whorlton Grange, county Durham, some time an inspector of works under the Drainage and Land Improvement Companies Act, died on Thursday in the College, Durham. Mr. Headlam was the third but eldest surviving son of the late Ven. John Headlam, M.A., Archdeacon of Richmond, and was born in 1822.

Referring to our notice of the trial trip of H.M.S. Amphion in our last impression, Messrs. Durham, Churchill, and Co. remind us that that ship is fitted with two of their Velometers, and that H.M.S. Racer is fitted with one. A report on an official trial of the latter, when the Racer was in too heavy a sea for measured trials, states that the governor controlled the engines in a most perfect manner.

A telegram from Panama says, a contract has been signed by a London firm to cut 15,000,000 metres of the Culebra section of the The cost will be under 8f. per metre, and the limit of time in which the work is to be executed is fixed at two years. A large force of European workmen has been ordered, but getting it may be a different thing. It is stated that the health of the labourers is good, and that the work is progressing, but we hear very conflicting opinions on the subject.

The admitted evils of the tendering systems are as much felt in Germany as here. For the supply of some cast and wrought iron pipes for the Main Weser Railway recently, the lowest tender was 11,000, and the highest just double—23,000 marks. The Govem-lt, through the Minister of Public Works, have decided to call a meeting of the general body of public tenderers, including those of the building trade, as was done prior to the last ordinance in 1K80, in order to gather a concensus of opinion preliminary to difying the present system of acceptance of the lowest tender. Representatives of the Spanish Government have recently been in this country inspecting the various establishments where heavy ordnance is manufactured. At Sheffield they have placed an order for the plant necessary to produce gun forgings of the largest kind. In Spain there are already in course of construction large steel and iron works, which will have the advantage of being near to the famous hematite ores of the Bilbao mountains. A Sheffield company is arranging with a local engineering establishment for a supply of plant capable of producing the heaviest possible ordnance. Tho plant, it is stated, will cost at least £200,000.

In the report on the composition and quality of daily samples of the water supplied to London, for the month ending November 30th, by William Crookes, F.R.S., William (Idling, M.B., F.R.S., F.R.C.F., andC. Meymott Tidy, M.B., F.C.S., the writers say:—

“ Of the 172 samples, all excepting one, that was recorded as ‘ slightly turbid,’ were found to be perfectly clear, bright, and well filtered. The proportions of organic matter in the water supplied by the several companies during the past month have continued low, and below the average for the season of the year, though not to so exceptional a degree as in the samples examined in the preceding month. During the past month, the organic matter in the water, though above that met with in October, can scarcely be said to have manifested as yet the ‘ appreciable rise ’ usually noticeable in the early winter months.”

The Incandescent Electric Lighting Company—working under the Crompton-Winfield system—lias given notice of a Bill in Parliament which considerably varies the terms of its order. It proposes that the Corporation shall purchase within six months after the expiration of thirty-five years from the passing of the Act, instead of, as is now provided, six months after the expiration of sixteen years. It asks also that the term for the deposit of separate capital shall be extended to two years after the proposed Act; that power shall be taken to vary from time to time the assigned district, with the consent of the Corporation; that it shall not be compelled to supply electricity to consumers for a longer period than twelve consecutive hours; and that the limit within which the commencement of supply shall take place shall be extended to five years instead of two. The company has obtained the consent of the Corporation to extend the time during which the preliminary work of providing and fixing machinery and laying down mains is to be completed. It is not expected that any opposition will be taken to the scheme by the Corporation, although it is anticipated that they will have something to say upon the extended time allowed for purchase.

For a long time the importation of sugar from Germany has had a severe effect on the sugar industry here, but the Germans are beginning to feel more and more the consequences of the present low prices. The Secretary of the Imperial Treasury has just hail to announce in Parliament a deficit of 21,000,000 marks, or £1,050,000, in the revenue that had been expected from this source, and if the promise of the present season be fulfilled, the exports will, observes the Colonics and India, be so heavy that there will be little or no revenue from sugar during the next twelve months. Herr Licht, it appears, maintains his estimate of 10*4 million tons as the quantity of beets raised in the current German crop and he considers that the average saccharine yield will exceei even that of the previous season—10^ per cent. Taking the saccharine yield of a ton of roots at only 10£ per cent., the production of sugar in the German empire during the season 1884-5 will be 1,118,000 tons, to which must be added 35,000 tons produced by the new process from the refuse molasses, or a total of 1,153,000 tons, against 1,100,000 tons as hitherto estimated for the current season, and 986,000 tons produced last year. As Germany only uses 375,000 tons for home consumption, she will require to export 775,000 tons, against 606,351 tons exported in the season 1883-4. The export of 775,000 tons would lead to a bounty of about £2,250,000.

The first meeting of the general committee formed at the instance of Lord Thurlow, chairman of the Anglo-American Brush Electric Light Corporation, was held on the 17th inst. at the offices of that company. Among those present were Sir Charles Bright, vice-president Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians; Sir David Salomons, Bart., Professors Silvanus Thompson, George Forbes, and W. E. Ayrton; Messrs. J. S. Sellon, R. Hammond, J. W. Swan, R. Campbell, H. Cunynghame, J. I. Courtenay, A. H. Renshaw, F. Ince, and Frank Wynne. Letters of apology were read from Lord Thurlow, Sir Frederick Bram-well, Professor Jamieson, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, and others. In the unavoidable absence of Lord Thurlow, Mr. J. S. Sellon was voted to the chair, and on the motion of the chairman, seconded by Mr. Hammond, Mr. Emile Garcke was unanimously sleeted honorary secretary to the committee. The following names were added to the general committeeShelford Bidwell, Clement Higgms, and Musgrave Heaphy E. W. W. Edwards. It was then proposed and carried that an executive committee be appointed to prepare draft clauses to be submitted to the Board of Trade, and the following gentlemen were elected by ballot to constitute the executive committeeSir Frederick Bramwell, Mr. J. S. Sellon, Mr. R. E. Crompton, Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., Major Flood-I’age, Mr. R. Campbell, Mr. R. Hammond, Mr. J. Irving Courtenay, and Mr. J. Staats Forbes, with Lord Thurlow as chairman and Mr. E. Garcke as honorary secretary, to whom any communication may be addressed, at 112, Belvedere-road, Dam both, S.&

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If credit occur, an extra charge of two shillings and sixpence per annum will be made. The Engineer is registered for transmission abroad.

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FOREIGN AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF THE ENGINEER.

PARIS.—Madame Boyveau, Rue de la Banque.

BERLIN.—Asher and Co., 5, Unter den Linden.

VIENNA.—Messrs. Gkrold and Co., Booksellers.

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Errata.—“ Links in the History of the Locomotive," last paragraph, line 5 from top, for Birmingham read Manchester; first column, page 409, line 16 from bottom, for Lincoln read Leicester.

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THE ENGINEER.

DECEMBER 26, 1884.

AUGMENTED RAILWAY RATES.

For some reasons difficult to fathom, the principal railway companies are about to endeavour to raise their charges. The Bills brought in have been published, and they deserve the most careful consideration from manufacturers and owners of mineral property. They have all the same objects in view; they all seek to impose new and higher tariffs, and to legalise those terminal charges which are so objectionable to producers and consumers alike. The Great Northern Bailway Company, for example, proposes to raise its maximum rate from threepence halfpenny per ton per mile to fivepence, with an additional sum for the cost of stations and expenses incurred at stations. The maximum rate on the London and South-Western is to be raised from threepence to fivepence, and on the London, Chatham, and Dover Bailway from fourpence to five-pence. The rates for cattle are also to be considerably increased. It is almost impossible to conceive what grounds the railway companies propose to carry out the disastrous policy foreshadowed in these All the great companies, if we except the London, Chatham, and Dover, are paying dividends, small dividends, no doubt, in certain cases; but even those railways worst off manage to make both ends meet, while lines like the Great Northern are eminently prosperous concerns. The price of coal is very moderate ; wages are not higher than they have been, and as for rails, they are, taking quality into consideration, cheaper now than they ever were known to be since 1830. It is difticult to place a finger on any augmentation of expense incurred by railway companies which could justify an increase of tariffs. When, on the other hand, we look at the condition of trade throughout the country, we are more than ever astonished by the policy of the railway companies. Deputation after deputation has waited on them, to point out that their present rates are so high that they have a disastrous effect on trade. The directors must be aware— unless they have wilfully shut their eyes to facts—that trade is everywhere bad, and yet just when commercial matters are in a miserable condition we find an attempt being made to raise the cost of transport. It would seem as though railway directors had one and all lost their reason in a blind and futile pursuit of gain.

The more fully the matter is considered, the more evidently does it appear that a reduction in railway rates, rather than an increase in them, should take place. At the present moment girders can be conve to London at a less rate than they can from the Birmingham district. It is stated that the tariff for milk is so high that a great Dutch syndicate has been formed to supply the metropolis regularly with milk, at much lower rates than it is supplied for now. The syndicate intend to build two steamers, fitted with refrigerating appliances, and to forward the milk to London daily by these vessels. No one, perhaps, will be disposed to display much pity for the London milkman; but we may sympathise with the English farmer, who is cut off from the metropolitanmarket by therailway company. There is a universal consensus of opinion among manufacturers of all kinds that railway goods tariff's are now exorbitant, and that in their reduction relief must be sought from foreign competition. But the railway companies do not seem to see this. We shall watch with some curiosity for the arguments which will be used in Parliament when the Bills under notice are brought forward. If it could be shown that goods, such, let us say, as coal and iron, were carried at a loss, or at a very minute profit, there would be something to be said in favour of the railway companies; but as a matter of fact the profits made on this traffic are The loss, where loss is incurred, is on passengers, not on goods. We long since published a careful estimate of the cost of hauling a ton of coals to London from the Midland coal district, and we showed, after every possible allowance had been made, that the price paid for the conveyance of coals to London was over three times the cost to the railway company. The accuracy of our figures has never yet been disputed. The anomalies of railway charges are standing grievances in trade circles. If the only way of eliminating anomalies lies in raising tariffs, the remedy will be worse than the disease. It is, again, by no means to be assumed that only those who have dealings in coal, iron, machinery, and very heavy goods have cause for complaint. The manufacturers of all manner of light wares and so-called fancy goods are hardly treated. So general, indeed, is the injury proposed to be inflicted, and so wide is the scope of the proposed operation of the companies’ Bills, that we are not surprised to hear that a vigorous opposition has been set on foot, and that the leading commercial and agricultural bodies are about to take measures for fighting the railway companies to the last. There is reason, however, to fear that this opposition may lack cohesion. The railway companies can fight sharply enough with one another; but when they make common cause against the public they are thoroughly united. They can, when need be, speak and act, and subscribe funds as one man. Can we expect as much from those who propose to contend with them 1 Judging by past experience, we should answer in the negative. Unfortunately there is very little unity among the manufacturers of this country. They appear to be almost incapable of combination ; some weak-kiieed member of every manufacturers’ association is sure to give way, and then the whole edifice tumbles to the ground. The railway companies perfectly understand this, and by a judicious use of their knowledge and opportunities they may succeed in reducing opposition in the House of Commons to such an extent that they will get their Bills passed. The most watchful vigilance will be needed to prevent this.

It would, we think, be well that some steps should be taken to elicit an expression of opinion from the lips of shareholders. It is not to be forgotten that this attempt to raise tariffs does not originate with shareholders—that is to say with railway companies proper—but with the boards of directors, and in all probability not so much with directors as a body as with that turbulent minority which exists in all groups of men, and does more to bring about changes than the majority. In the interests the shareholders themselves the facts ought to be brought clearly before them ; and it should be made evident to them that the wisest policy of the railway companies lies not in augmenting, but in reducing tariffs. Mr. Allport, of the Midland Railway, taught a lesson which should never be forgotten. He showed that the third-class traffic—in other words, the cheap passengers—paid far better than the dear ; and we may ask the railway companies to consider in what position they would be at this moment hut for the third-class passenger. The prosperity of most of our great lines is intimately bound up with the condition of trade, and it is agreed on all hands—we fancy that even railway directors in their sane moments will not dispute the proposition—that trade depends to a very large extent for its prosperity on cheap transport. The Western States of North America would still be untilled, but that railway freights are so low that corn can be grown in them at a profit. A very moderate rise in the railway goods’ tariffs of the United States would simply ruin the man who grows wheat out West. Let us suppose that in Great Britain the railway companies had matters their own way and pushed tariffs to an extreme. We should then find coal and iron imported into London from Belgium. We should see the whole export trades of Manchester and Birmingham ruined; coal pits and ironworks in the Midlands closed; and thousands of wagons standing idle on the sidings, while locomotives rusted by dozens in the sheds. This is no fancy picture, it is quite capable of realisation. The policy of the railway companies is not only murderous as far as trade is concerned, it is suicidal with respect to their own interests. We cannot and do not believe that the proposals we have criticised originated with men in possession of all the facts and of average commercial intellect; worst fate that could befal the railway companies would be the success of their bills, and we could wish this to come to pass, only that the price to be paid for an instructive lesson in political economy would be too high.

WHITWORTH GUNS AND THE “ TIMES.”

The Times fired a Whitworth gun last Friday. The charge was as follows: Hopes, it seems, are entertained for the future development of our guns. The Surveyor-General of Ordnance and staff have visited Sir J. Whitworth’s works. This occurrence, following as it does on the appointment of a new director of artillery, augurs well. The past history of artillery in England has, however, been a dark one. Guns were made of steel tubes, which were supposed to be supported by coils of wrought iron welded into cylinders, though the description given elsewhere was that they were glued together by slag.

“ Elsewhere,” by the way, means that Sir Joseph Whitworth had so described them. These guns, we informed, had behaved in the following distressing manner. “Some of these burst flagrantly and noisily, to require the reports of committees to throw decent veils of verbiage over their untimely fate ; others burst or split more quietly, so that they could be suppressed without ostentation, and all would have been far more dangerous to the gunners in charge of them than to any enemy against whom they could have been directed.” The tolerance of such guns was the more shocking, because at any meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute they would have been condemned in every particular like L>r. Johnson’s proverbial leg of mutton. The recent American Commission have declared Whitworth’s system of forging to be a “ revelation,” and his actual guns have beaten all rivals in every single point of excellence, in range, in penetration, in velocity, and in durability.

Our contemporary has every right to fire off this class of article. The Elswick firm is very powerful and has friends at court. It has a habit of swallowing rival manufacturers. Yavasseur and Dyer have been thus assimilated. Then it has in its maw a late superintendent of the Royal Gun Factories, to say nothing artillery officers. It has furnished the Admiralty with a Lord, and it has torn an eminent naval constructor from that Department. It is no doubt a serious thing to be in the field of competition against such an opponent. Competition is a good thing, and we have long felt that English steel makers, especially Whitworth, deserved recognition and encouragement from Government. Steel guns have been develojied in this country during a period when authorities steadily set their faces against them, so that our Government benefits by work to which it lent, so far as we know, the slightest encouragement. Nay, more, when steel guns came in eventually, much opposition had to be overcome. All this and more may This, however, is not a reason for talking nonsense, and that much of what we have quoted is unmitigated nonsense hardly needs demonstration.

Would the Times have us believe, for example, that our guns were far more dangerous to our gunners than to our enemies in action 1 They have frequently been used on service. Has this result been produced, or anything to justify the language used, even when not taken too literally ? The original patterns of breechloading Armstrong guns were faulty, as pointed out by a letter in the Times, referred to by the article we ave dealing with; but the utmost that could be said was that some accidents happened, actually causing loss of life in a very few cases, owing to guns being fired when the breech was not screwed home. These chiefly, we think, took place in China or Japan; but the reports of officers present state that the effect of the fire on the enemy was very great. “ Very destructive,” “terribly effective,” “immense number killed by the Armstrong guns,” “ the Armstrong guns saved a great deal of loss on our side,” and the like expressions of opinion are found in all reports as far as we know from our own officers. The Japanese and Chinese opinions were pretty plainly shown by their afterwards ordering Armstrong guns. Certain improvements and alterations were advocated, so it is said, to the Japanese when they inquired about them, but the reply was, “ Give us the exact thing that was fired at us ; that will do for us.” The same tale might be continued through all our subsequent wars; but it is scarcely worth while writing to convince the man who soberly believes the whole statement with which we are dealing. We should probably do better to come at once to any portion that we can recognise as worthy of serious treatment. The extravagant language used is doubtless meant, at all events, to convey the idea that our guns burst badly, and that their powers were weak; that the authorities set their faces against Whitworth guns, which were much better than those in the Service; and placed officers who knew nothing or little of manufacturing work in charge of the gun factories, and that they changed them too often to allow them to learn their duties.

As to the bursting, the Thunderer accident, which is far the most serious one, was not, in our judgment, due to the gun being too weak for its work. We may remind our readers that not only was it due to double loading, but to an aggravated form of double loading, that is, with a shell in front so acted on as to jam up the bore. We expressed this opinion during the course of Sir W. Palliser’s experiments. In The Engineer of January 28th, 1881, we explained why and how the gun would probably burst if a shell were used as the front projectile. This result took place on May 28th, 1881, and this result might very likely occur with any gun of corresponding date, if not any date. Steel guns, as now made,are stronger than our built-up wrought iron guns, and they are, moreover, much more trustworthy than the steel guns to which our service guns were p may repeat what we said on this long berc duction—The Engineer, July 30th, 1880: “Tlie peculiar qualities of steel would be dearly purchased if those of wrought iron were given in exchange for them; but from the moment we are convinced that steel is presented to us with the qualities of wrought iron, and with great superiority in other respects, we sacrifice no principle in adopting it.” “ Those who have preferred wrought iron, not from prejudice but for the sake of its qualities, may with complete consistency adopt steel so soon as it is proved to possess in a still higher degree those very qualities which they valued in wrought iron.” The fact is, that the solid cast steel gun has given place to one built up in cylinders, and the steel itself is very different in quality from that originally used. If the gun of the present day differs from the original Armstrong in consisting wholly of steel, it differs from the original Whitworth gun in being built up. The metal doubtless we owe to our steel makers; the principle of construction is in a great measure that of Armstrong. So much so, that neither Krupp nor Whitworth would dare to employ one of their original solid steel cast guns for the work now demanded,

parts of the lines, all dead or redundant material—“ an old man of the sea ”—lost money. Mathematicians delight to set out stress curves, and to give their readers and pupils the formulae from which these have been arrived at. Such work is useful—very large iron structures, in fact, could scarcely be designed without their aid. Fortunately it is easier, so far as statical stress is concerned, to get tolerable uniformity between stress curves and resisting sections in large than can be attained in small work; this, of course, is due to the proportionally greater number of separate parts in the larger structure; or to put the thing in another way, as each plate is represented by an ordinate from the horizontal datum, the greater the number of plates the greater also the number of ordinates, and one great change of section is subdivided into a greater or less number of smaller changes. It is well known that sudden changes of diameter are carefully to be avoided in shafting, and we now desire to direct the attention of those of our readers who may not thoroughly realise the fact, that just as it is certain that abrupt or even moderately abrupt change in the diameter of a shaft seriously weakens it, so also is it true that the greater are the abrupt changes of resisting section in girder or truss ironwork, so also is the waste of material. The corollary or deduction from this being, that regarded from this point alone, the smaller the plates, and consequently the greater the number used in a girder, the less will be the idle and wasted material present in the work. Other reasons also suggest the advantage of using small and thin in preference to large and thick plates. The former, to begin with, can be had at a lower price; they are more easily made of uniform quality; require less labour to shift; less loss is incurred in a waster—test samples spoiling plates, it is better tospoila small thanalarge one; better ana sounder ri vetting can be attained with thin plates, and every plate is more likely to do its fair share of work. It perhaps will be objected that however sound our THE proportion between stresses AND sections in arguments may be for statical loads, the stresses due to girder work.    dynamical work are so variable that such reasoning cannot

Is the existing method of constructing girders by piling apply. Such an objection has some force, but how much? and rivetting large and comparatively thick plates together Rolling or other loads inducing vibration have their limits followed because experience has proved it to be the best just as well defined as have statical stresses, and this being possible, or has mere habit and tradition an influence so, the value of the objections possible to raise against our in its retention? From time to time the question has been reasoning is capable of determination, and can be so deter-discussed whether any better inode of securing ironwork mined by any one expert in calculating dynamical strains, other than by rivets is practicable, and up to the present All that is necessary is to set out the dynamical the resulting verdict is in the negative. We do not pur- stress curve for a rolling load, and then plotting the pose to criticise this opinion, but the fastening of the parts resistance section line. The only real force of any of a girder together is only one item in the designing and objection to the foregoing reasoning is that the calcula-buildingof ironwork. The adjustment of good proportions tion of dynamical stress needs a higher order of mathe-between stresses and the sections resisting them is another matical proficiency, and that a structure intended for and extremely important point, and the question we have dynamical work must of necessity have much more idle put above relates to it. In some treatises on ironwork material, or rather much more material idle when no students are warned against entertaining the idea that it train or other load is moving over it. In other respects a is possible to so design a girder or other similar structure neglect of the principles involved in the above reasoning is ns that every part will be alike in its strength and stress just as bad in the one case as in the other. If some of our proportion. No doubt in a certain sense the warning is mathematical readers, or those who make the designing of deserving of attention, but there is this fault about it, girders a speciality, will set out the curves of stress and the that it tends to discourage original thought, and deters lines of resistance for a girder, say, of 120ft. span for such students and the younger members of the engineering pro- comparatively statical work as a road bridge, and also for fession from attempting a closer approximation between a railway, we shall be happy to publish them and open stresses and sections than obtains at present. No girder our columns to a discussion on the merits of thick verms or truss is stronger than its weakest point, and the thin, and small verms large plates in girder work, greater the number of weakest points in a girder the Another point deserving of attention at the hands of nearer, paradoxical as it may appear, is the approach bridge and girder designers is the consideration of how far to proper and economical proportion of material to equality of resisting section to stress may be more nearly loa<l. A girder, every foot of which would be its weakest, attained by using plates of different sizes and thicknesses, or strongest, point, would be in this respect perfect; and, Conditions of working might, and no doubt do, arise in reciprocally, any girder having any given point much in which variation of sizes and thicknesses would economise excess of all the rest in strength, is, by that excess, showing    material if adopted.    The    distribution of iron    to the

both a waste of material and an undue loading of the    greatest advantage, and how    best to effect it, is a    field of

weakest point as well, which as a consequence must be investigation in which both the theorist .and the practical strong enough to sustain not alone the legitimate man can work together, and which indeed must be worked stress due to correct design, but also to carry the weight by both jointly if the best results are to be attained. It of the excess material at the point unnecessarily strong, is a branch of study in which one cannot do without the and which may be designated redundant iron. Thus it    other. A good deal    may be, and doubtless is,    already

will be seen that bad proportioning of a girder causes    known on the subject,    but it    is certain something    remains

greater waste of material than is superficially apparent; to be learned, and were any one to set out even a moderately-sized girder, making some one point stronger than all the rest, and were then carefully to investigate the effects of that excess weight of material on other parts, necessitating increased section and consequent weight for them, and the effect of this again elsewhere, residts might, nay, would be found showing that it is very expedient to study proportion in girders with tolerable exactness.

An excellent method of ascertaining at a glance how near to exactness a girder has been proportioned to its total work, is to set out respectively the curves of stresses and the straight lines of resisting sections. We say straight lines of resistance advisedly, for such they are, and this fact seems more or less ignored by many girder designers. The stresses of a girder when graphically set out are almost invariably curves of one or another type.

Now, if even a simple girder, loaded uniformly all over, have respectively its stress lines and its resisting lines set out the one on the other and to a true scale, that is, so that both vertical and horizontal scales are the same, an inspection of them will show that something remains for us to learn in the rolling of plates and angle-irons for such work, and their subsequent distribution in a girder. In a perfect girder, to sustain a statical load, the graphic delineation of stresses will show a line more or less curved, the character of the curve depending upon the distribution of the load. The graphic setting out of the sections of resistance will show an exactly similar curve at such a distance from the stress line as would, on the scale .adopted, represent the margin of safety adopted. Owing, however, to the present system of constructing girders by fastening a number of plates together, the section or resistance'ilne can never in practice be a curve.

It will be a series of straight lines, with abrupt terminations, and under the plate system of construction a designer must first set out his stress line curve, and then so set out his section of resistance lines as that its lowest point will not fall within the margin of safety line he will of course have set out beside the stress line. When this has been done he will find a rather startling excess of strength in various

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The same thing is true in a measure with regard to the proportions and power of guns. Whitworth deserves credit for, at times, advocating long guns; at the same time, his large guns were neither of approximate proportions to modern weapons, nor in the Armstrong and Whitworth trial, which was exhaustive, did they manifest the superiority now claimed for them.

We cordially agree with the Times in regretting that officers are always removed from the heads of manufacturing departments when they have remained there only five years; and we could give reasons which, we think, are very serious, though not generally known, for opinion; but there is more hope of rectifying this by sober than extravagant language. Our Government departments are not the best organisation for conducting experiments. We generally find new ideas first embodied in guns made by private manufacturers, even where size is in question. We hardly know why Elswick should have 100-ton guns ten years before we make them in the Arsenal. The cure, however, for this is to develope, not to crush, our factories. At the present moment, for example, it is not the fault of our manufacturing officers that steel projectiles are not made in the Royal Laboratory, or that steel guns or breech-loading guns were not made in the Arsenal long before they were. Altogether, we should share the gladness of the Times if the manufacture of our guns should be pushed forward. Private firms have done much for us, and we should be glad to see orders given out on a large scale. Whitworth steel should be developed by all means. Our guns are a pressing need, and we have taken long enough deciding on a pattern. The time has arrived to push on. However, the Times hopes that we are to give up our present built-up steel guns, or to cease to make guns in the Royal Arsenal. The hope is neither desirable nor practicable.

SUrERIIBATED STEAM.

It seems a little remarkable that in the pursuit of economy of fuel engineers have abandoned superheating. Years ago its value was well understood, and the superheater was found in almost all ships pretending to have good engines and boilers ; but the boilers which in the presentdayare fitted with true superheaters may be counted almost on the fingers. The reason why superheating was given up, is to be found in the fact that the thing was overdone. We have heard of instances in which the steam was so much heated that it would scorch paper, and did carbonise and ruin the piston-rod packings. No amount of saving in fuel could compensate for this. Another objection to superheating lay in the fact that it appeared to exert a species of solvent effect on the cast iron of port faces, the edges of the ports becoming in ti so brittle and soft that they could be dug out with a penknife. We have reason to think, however, that although superheating was a failure ten or fifteen years ago, it need not be a failure now, the conditions under which it can be employed being much more favourable than they used to be. What we are about to say on the subject is not intended to apply solely to marine engines, but to all steam engines which are intended to be economical.

The conditions of application are more favourable than they have been, first, because more is known about superheating than was known, and there is consequently less chance of it being overdone ; and, secondly, the use of very high pressures has led to the production of better castings than those previously made. Again, asbestos and metallic packings are now available, which were unknown before; and, lastly, mineral oils can be used as lubricants instead of the tallow, which alone was at the service of the engineer as a cylinder greaser. Twenty years ago, when Mr. Adams first tried to use very high pressures— 1501b. to 160 lb.—on the North-London Railway, great trouble was experienced from the cutting of the cylinders. The high temperature of the steam—370 deg.—volatilised or carbonised the oil, and the metal appeared to be attacked in much the same way as though superheated steam was used; but after a few trials a mixture of irons was found, and a system of casting adopted, which got over the difficulty, and pressures of 100 lb. are now freely used without any inconvenience. If we assume that 350 deg. is a safe temperature, then it follows that steam of 85 lb. with a temperature of 328 deg. might have 25 deg. or thereabouts of superheat imparted to it without the least danger. Indeed, we may go further than this, because the steam is certain to be cooled down the moment it enters a cylinder; so that a greater degree of superheat would do no harm. The advantage to he derived from the use of a superheater is twofold. In the first place, it will send dry steam, not a mixture of steam and water, into the engine; and, secondly, the superheat will tend to prevent cylinder condensation. Before any of our readers can understand the advantage to be derived in this way, however, they must realise the loss caused by the use of wet steam, or rather by the presence of moisture in a cylinder. The great foe to economy of fuel is cylinder condensation. If perfectly dry steam could be used this condensation would be reduced to a minimum, because dry steam, like any other gas, conducts heat very slowly. If the walls of a cylinder were always dry then the cooling influence of a condenser would be hardly felt, for reasons which may be easily explained in a few words. If a surface is wetted and submitted to a vacuum, the moisture will evaporate freely, taking up the heat necessary for evaporation from the surface on which it rests. If the vapour is continually drawn off, as by the air pump of a condensing engine, the evaporation and absorption of heat will be intensified, as may be easily shown by a simple experiment. Sulphuric acid is extremely greedy of water; if some be placed in a saucer under the receiver of an ordinary air pump, and a watch glass containing water is placed near it, also under the receiver, as soon as the pump is worked and the pressure reduced, vapour will be given off by the water and immediately seized by the acid; and so much heat will be carried off in this way that the water will quickly be frozen, if the watch glass rest on a bit of wood or other non-conductor, from which it cannot get heat. Just the same action takes place at every stroke in a steam engine, and the amount of loss will be measured for one thing by the quantity of moisture in the cylinder. There is nothing like a practical illustration to clench a truth, so we give the following anecdote:—A large compound pumping engine was put down at a colliery, and was guaranteed to work at seven strokes per minute, steam being supplied by boilers already on the spot. The engine was started, but could not make more than six strokes per minute for want of steam. The makers of the engine pointed out that no drain cocks were fitted to the low-pressure cylinder, and refused to make any modifications in the valve setting or load until these were put on. Some delay took place, but at last the cocks were fitted. The engine then went off at nine strokes a minute, and made as many as ten, with the same boilers and conditions of firing. Of course in this case, as the engine dwelt for a considerable period at the end of each stroke, water in the cylinder did much more harm than it would in a <]uick running engine. The firm invariably, we believe, fit steam traps to drain pipes permanently open, and so get rid of moisture as much as possible.

Ordinary saturated steam is a very different thing from a permanent gas. It is in what chemists call the critical condition. Its molecules are in unstable equilibrium, and the least deprivation of heat causes condensation. When steam is superheated it acquires different properties. Among others it is much more mobile. Mr. D. K. Clark has pointed out in his treatise on the locomotive, that engines with outside cylinders always have more back pressure than engines with inside cylinders, because the outside cylinder being cooler than the inside cylinder, the steam is wetter, and the exhaust more sluggish. Smaller ports and passages will do with gaseous than will suffice with saturated steam. It must not be forgotten that steam is considerably increased in volume by superheating. The late I)r. Siemens found that steam of 212 deg., superheated but maintained at atmospheric pressure, augmented rapidly in volume until the temperature rose to 220 deg., and less rapidly up to 230 deg., or 18 deg. above saturation point; from thence it behaved like a permanent gas. Ordinary saturated steam may be made gaseous by superheating it from 10 deg. to 20 deg. According to Regnault, the total heat of gaseous steam is about 2A per cent, greater than that of saturated steam.

It is well known to most engineers in the present day that a portion of the heat contained in steam is converted iijto work, so that even in a perfect non-conducting cylinder, if such a thing could be had, some steam must be condensed. Now, it so happens that working steam will always give up its superheat before anything else, and therefore it is quite possible, theoretically, to work an engine without any cylinder condensation whatever, the whole of the heat converted into work being derived from the superheat. Such an engine would work with maximum economy. Let us assume that 0'3 lb. of steam per minute developes 1-horse power in a given engine; the total quantity of heat in it will be, let us say, 1181 x *3 = 354*3 units, of which we may suppose that 324 are due to the fuel, the temperature of the feed-water being 60 deg. A horse-power represents only 42*74 units per minute. The specific heat of saturated steam is *305, that of gaseous steam is *475, under constant pressure. If we take the latter figure, then it would be necessary to superheat one-third of a pound of steam by 90 deg. If its pressure were 85 lb., its temperature while saturated would be 328 deg., and 328 -f 90 = 418 deg., which would be too high for ordinary use, corresponding as it would to a pressure of about 4201b. on the square inch absolute. The whole of the work would, however, come out of the superheat, and if the cylinder had a very thin liner, and was jacketted with superheated steam, it is more than probable that an extreme degree of economy would be attained. Although we do not assert that it would be desirable to push superheating so far as this, we would earnestly impress upon steam users the importance of adopting some

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an arrangement is often made for effecting the same end by what are called slides, the two openings to cylinder in this case being ground to a flat surface, upon these two plates or discs also ground to a true surface, pass backwards and forwards, thus covering or uncovering by pairs the openings for the admission or escape of the steam. I lie manner in which these valves act is thus:—Suppose the cylinder to he placed in a vertical position—which it is not always—when the piston arrives at the top of the cylinder, two valves—the upper steam and the lower exhaust valve—are required to be opened, and at the same same moment the two other valves—the lower steam valve and the upper exhaust valve—must be closed. Now as all these movements are simultaneous, it may be easily imagined that the four valves may be so connected that a single movement imparted to them should open one pair and close the other. When the piston arrives at the bottom of the cylinder a single motion in the contrary direction will evidently effect the object to be obtained— that is to say, to open the lower steam valve and upper exhaust valve and close the upper steam valve and lower exhaust valve. This will he better understood by Figs, fi fum Fig. G, we may observe, is (V section already

1885.

Hannover : Schmorl and von Seefield.

are

referred to, and Fig. 7 is a view of the piston with | unfilled, and we enter under the conditions (6) which correspond the cover removed.” There are letters for descriptive ; exactly with those of my experiment, where the jet represents a puijoses iu the cylinder section which    ^    j

used instead of this nonsense that accompanies it. I he j latter condition includes the majority of cases, and it is one that author has evidently described, or badly copied from some ■ ought to receive consideration in the design of every turbine that is description of, a tappet valve condensing engine, and used a handy cylinder section as being as good as any other.

Speaking of the vacuum, the author says:—“Now, if 1 cubic foot of steam be reconverted into cold water, it will be reduced to 1 cubic inch of liquid, and we shall get the entire cubic foot—minus 1 in.—of vacuum, and therefore for every cubic foot of steam in the cylinder we shall have a cubic of vacuum minus 1 cubic inch.” Such elaborate and intelligent information on a condensing engine might be expected from the preface, which says:—

“ It has been deemed proper to devote a considerable section of the present book to an elucidation of the motor powers now in use or likely to come into use on the farm.

The principle of the steam engine has naturally been expounded at some length.” On steam thrashing machines the author has very copiously borrowed from the “ Proceedings” of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, crediting oidy one description. We might venture to advise Mr.

Scott to go to the same, or other equally good, source when he thinks of learning something about steam engines, before again expounding the principle of the steam engine at length.” Perhaps, it would be better that he should obtain the assistance of some one competent to deal with the principles he proposes to expound.

new departure which shall correspond more closely cities of practical construction.    A

42, Old Broad-street, London,

December 23rd.

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per pound of coal, as A. C. Engert.

arrangement by which dry steam may be admitted to the cylinders of the engines; even a steam trap fitted on the steam pipe near the engine will be useful. It is not as generally known as it ought to be that all Lancashire, Cornish, and locomotive boilers supply steam which contains from 5 to 8 per cent, of moisture in the shape of insensible priming. Some of this can be “ knocked out” of steam by the use of baflle plates; but in all cases where it is possible some arrangement for drying the steam thoroughly, should be adopted.

SHIPBUILDING IN TI1E NORTH.

Although the totals are not yet obtainable for the vessels that have been built in the year 1884 as a whole in the northeast, it is evident that at some of the chief building centres there have been enormous reductions in the tonnage of the vessels launched. The Tyne will still hold the first place in the rank of the shipbuilding rivers and ports of that district; then follows Sunderland, or the Wear rather; then West Hartlepool; and close behind, the river Tees—this being the position of the ports last year. But although the position is the same, yet there will be a wide disparity in the figures that show the output for the two years. The returns are complete for the last two places, and they show that whilst in the year 1883 West Hartlepool and its neighbour, the Tees, launched 149,000 tons, in 1884 the total tonnage launched at the two centres had sunk to 61,000 tons. The port of Sunderland and the Wear will show an even larger actual falling off, and the Tyne also an enormous fall, and so do the smaller ports. There is another fact to be borne in mind, and that is that the decline has mainly taken place in the last nine months of the year, and that the number of the vessels on the stocks at the close of the year is about at its lowest ebb. Hence we may feel that the relief that the freight market has already experienced will be continued for some time to come, and thus the cheek that has been given to shipbuilding must be held to have accomplished the object that was needed to be gained. The freight market will soon make shipping more remunerative, and when that is the case orders will flow more freely into the shipbuilding ports. But it will be many months before there will be great activity, and in these months the loss of vessels will go on as it has done, and the freight market will benefit.

LITERATURE.

The Complete Text-Book of Farm Engineering. By John Scott.

Weale’s Series. London : Crosby Lockwood and Co. 1885. This book consists of a bound-up set of the books lately written and compiled by Mr. John Scott, and published in Weale’s Series by Messrs. Lockwood in separate volumes of the usual size. They are upon (1) draining and embanking ; (2) irrigation and water supply; (3) farm roads, fences, and gates ; (4) farm buildings; (5) barn implements and machines ; (0) field implements and machines ; and (7) agricultural surveying. The series ranges over a very wide range of subjects, which may in general be said to be treated in that sufficient manner which has given to the Weale’s Series a reputation for usefulness to young students in the subjects treated. From an engineer’s point of view we might complain of the result of Mr. Scott’s labours throughout, hut the book cannot he taken as intended for engineers. Of the modern ideas on draining it tells farmers and others a good deal ; of water supply it shows farmers much they ought to read and learn with great care —how water may be cheaply obtained and distributed by tube wells and modern appliances, and how much more the farmer is likely to lose than he generally supposes by a small and had and uncertain water supply, when he could get a good one for a few pounds sterling. Of surveying it tells farmers what they should know, and others may also learn from this. Of road-making, and of farm buildings, country road surveyors, farmers, and landlords may learn a good deal, they should, in their own interests, learn at as early an age as possible. Of barn implements and machines, and held implements and machines, farmers may gather a little about work to be expected from such applianoes, and of the difference between new and the antiquated machines, hut they must not attempt to learn anything about the working or theory of a steam engine from Mr. Scott. His treatment of this subject is almost too amusing. No one surely ever got into such a hopeless muddle and mixture as Mr. Scott has by a sort of potpourri of descriptions of engines with slides, described by reference to engines with tappet valves, and engines with tappets described by reference to engines with slides; ports called valves, the parts of a double cylinder engine confounded with a single one, excentrics called discs of metal fixed on a shaft at some distance from its geometrical

centre, and accounts of farmers’engines prefaced by

bling account of a condensing engine. Concerning a section of a steam engine cylinder, with a simple slide valve having lap equal half the width of port, Mr. Scott, having said something about alternate admission of steam by conical valves to one and the other end of a cylinder, goes on: “In lieu of these valves

BOOKS RECEIVED.

A Sketch of the Geology of Suffolk. By J. E. Taylor, Ph.D., F.G.S. Sheffield: W. White. 1884.

Essay on the Experiences and Opinions of John Howard on the Preservation and Improvement of the Health of Schools and other Public Institutions, as Affected by Supplies of Air, Water, and Drainage. Awarded Statistical Society’s Howard medal. By R. D. R. Sweeting, M.R.C.S. London: Balliere, Tindall, and Cox. 1884.

Electrolyse Reuseignments Pratigue sur le Nickelage, le Cuivrage, la Dorurc, VArgenture, VAff'inage des Metaux et Ic Traitement des Mincraux au Moyen de VElectricity. l’ar Hippolyte Fontaine. Baris: Baudry et Cie.

The Story of a Great Delusion in a Series of Matter-of-Fact Chapters. By William White. London: E. W. Allen. 1885.

Forty-five Years of Registration Statistics, proving Vaccination to be both Useless and Dangerous. In two parts. By Alfred R. Wallace, LL.D. London: E. W. Allen. 18X5.

Magneto and Dymmo-clectric Machines, with a description of Electric Accumulation. From the German of Glaser de Cew. By F. Krohn, and specially edited, with many additions, by Baget Higgs, LL.D., D.Sc. The Specialist Series, vol. 1. London: Symons and Co. 1884.

History ami Description of the Manchester Waterworks. By John Frederic La Trobe Bateman, F.R.S.E., Bast President Inst. C.E., F.G.S., &c. Manchester: T. J. Day. London: E. and F. N. Spon. 1884.

The Law of Land Drainage and Sewers : A Treatise upon the Law Relating to the Commissioners of Sowers and Drainage Authorities. By G. G. Kennedy and J. S. Sandars. London : Waterlow and Co. 1884.

Electrician's Lo<j-book. Liverpool : Dunsford and Son. Magazine of American History. Edited by Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. London : Triibner and Co. 1884. Vol. xii., No. 4.

Nature's Hygiene. By C. T. Kingzett, F.I.C. London: Badiere, Tindall, and Co. 1884.

Zcitschrift des Architecktrn and Ingenieur-vcreins zu Hannover. Band xxx. Heft 1-8.

Master Car-builders' Association, Report of Proceedings, June, 1884. New York: N. B. Brown. 1884.

Men of Invention and Industry. By Samuel Smiles, LL.D. London : John Murray. 1884.

The Alkali Makers Pocket-book. By George Linge, Ph.D., and F. Hurter, l’h.D. London: George Bell and Sons.

The Roller Mill Annual and Millwrights' Alnuinac for 1885, By James Donaldson. London: Simpicin, Marshall, and Co. 1884.

AusLoskana Gcoloyisch-tcchnischc and Kulturlustorischc Studien. VonE. Reyer. Wien: Carl Gerold’s Sohn. 1884.

Agricultural Surveying. By John Scott. Weale’s Series. London : Lockwood and Co. 1884.

Treatise on Steam Boiler Incrustation and Methods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Seale. London: Sampson, Low, and Co. 1884.

School of Mines Quarterly Series: The Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe. By Wheator B. Kimhardt. New York: John Wiley. London: Triibner and Co. 1884.

The Assay and Analysis of Iron and Steel, Iron Ores, and Fuel. By Thos. Bayley. London: E. and F. N. Spon.

The Theory of Deflections and of Latitudes and Departures. By J. W. Smith. New York: Van Nostrand. London: Triibner and Co.

Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute. 1884. No. 1. London E. and F. N. Spon.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

(Continued from page 479.)

THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH TURBINES AND SCREW PROPELLERS.

Sir,—In The Engineer of 10th October last there is a letter from Professor Unwin commenting on a paper of mine under the above title, which was read at the Montreal Meeting of the British Association and published by you on 2nd September.

Having returned from Canada only last month, this letter has but recently come under my notice, and though some interest in its subject may be lost through lapse of time, yet may I ask the favour of being permitted now to make some remarks upon the questions it raises ? I am the more desirous of doing so because Professor In win is one of the very few who do understand turbines in this country: and he is by no means one of those investigators whose mathematical efforts only “ray down darkness” on us engineers, who have to design and make these admirable motors. Hence, anything he may have to say on the subject is well deserving of much consideration.

It is perfectly true that (a) a stream passing through a pipe, and filling its area, maintains a constant velocity; and this is accompanied by a constantly diminishing pressure against its sides as the flow proceeds. And it is equally certain that (6) a stream passing through an unfilled pipe loses velocity, but increases its area of discharge.

Discussions on turbines mostly assume, as Professor Unwin does, that the condition (a) of a constant velocity obtains in practice, and lie seems to think that my experiments were designed to demonstrate this law, a law which only holds good so long as the buckets are entirely filled with water, and supporting an equal pressure on every side. Supposing this state of things to prevail during the usual conditions under which turbines run, then undoubtedly the effects of impact and reaction would be exactly equal. But if once the supply gate ho lowered or narrowed, then the buckets made.

No analogy with a long bend can correspond accurately with the buckets of turbines, which are necessarily short bends, so I am inclined to think that it is rather the investigators of turbines, and not myself, who have failed in securing definite conditions in grounding their researches.

Indeed, I have intentionally disregarded those conditions which are so generally assumed in books treating of turbines, because they seem to me misleading, ami I have endeavoured to make a

with the neces-Arthur Kigc.

STEAM BOILER FURNACES.

Sir,—Referring to your article in last Friday’s issue of The Engineer .criticising my blowpipe flame furnace, I would observe that the various comparisons made on the invention or improvement in combustion in steam boiler furnaces leaves the matter exactly where it originally stood. You say “ that chimneys smoke just as much as they did fifty years agofurther on you say, “ Mr. Engert’s statement serves very well to illustrate what we have stated above.” To this I beg to reply, that if you had honoured me with a visit of only half an hour to have looked at my chimney and into the furnace, you could never have made such a statement with truth. You then describe the blowpipe furnace, and say that I admit air above the burning fuel by of modified Martin’s fire-door. This statement is a great mistake, and proves your non-acquaintance with the real facts, inasmuch as the Martin s fire-door admits air on the top of the furnace, which little to help combustion; on the contrary, the great volume of air rushing freely into the furnace must be heated, and this air contains moisture which greatly expands over the fire and floats over the flame with the hot air close to the boiler plate, which often prevents the heat reaching the water and forming steam, and therefore causing an enormous waste of fuel. In my furnace the air is only allowed to enter at the bottom of the hanging curtain just over the dead plate, where the fire is burning, so that not an atom of air can enter without coming in contact with the burning mass of coals, and this produces the long transparent flame and intense heat spoken of in my paper. Further on you say: “We are content to assume that along bridge”—as you call it— never was used before, and that neither here or on the Continent was a grate sloped the wrong way, so to speak. Neither have we the least objection to admit that the furnace works very well. Is there, in a word, anything specially good about the blowpipe action claimed for his furnace by Mr. Engert?” By the above you admit the arrangement is entirely new, and I should lik what proof you have that the furnace is not as good as stated in its results. In my furnaee almost everything is reversed, not only the fire-bars and draught, but the fire-grate area, which is only, say, even 5 square feet—and this is over the actual area—but with this I am able to evaporate 1631 lb. of water per hour at 85 lb. pressure with 1331b. of common hard steam coal without forced draught. Is not this in itself a novelty? Could it have been accomplished by the old system?

Another explanation is here necessary. You state that “ if the boiler had been 28ft. long, instead of 18ft., a better result would have been obtained.” Now, if you will kindly look to the official reports in your hands, you will see that the degree of heat in the Hue towards the chimney was only 200 deg. Fall, at 1ft. from the per, and 20ft. further only l99J deg. Fah., as stated by Mr. k. Mr. Schdnheyder obtained similar results in the same places, but he was not satisfied. He, therefore, had a hole made quite close to the boiler flue on the boiler side of the damper, and even at this point, and with increased draught, the highest degree of heat obtained by him was 350 deg. Fah. Allow me to state that at the very point where now only 199J deg. Fah. was found in my boiler, in other boilers 290 to 352 deg. Fah. is found, and this latter temperature was found in this identical boiler before adopting my new system of furnace, This is a very important fact, and will appear to be even more so when I state that within the furnace with my new blowpipe system there was quite 3000 deg. Fah. Mr. Thornycroft, in a torpedo boat, had 3000 dog. Fah. in the furnace and 1400 deg. Fah. in the uptake, with forced draught, plenty of smoke, and unconsumed gases. Here, then, is a difference, and I think it very doubtful if a 28ft. boiler would have produced any better results, as the intense heat produced by the blowpipe system had already penetrated the 18ft. of metal, and was absorbed by the water. In my opinion, the 356 deg. Fah. on the end of the boiler wa3 nothing else but condensed vapour brought in by the atmosphere.

I may here state that by firing on this system within boiler flues containing vertical tubes, far greater results would be obtained, and would further upset the old system and calculations. By referring to my paper you will see Mr. Clark’s test was made by slow combustion, and Mr. Sclionheyder, when the factory was at full work and more steam being used, allows for the difference in evaporation. You say, further on, “ The idea that complete combustion can be got with an admission of only 12 lb. of air per lb. of coal is a complete fallacy.” I have never expressed that idea. The various short trials of evaporation which I made tend only to show what a great difference exists between slow and forced combustion, and what a small grate area is required under this new system to produce the necessary quantity of steam. The water was from 70 deg. to 75 deg. Fah. The official reports of the two gentlemen states they tested the steam several times and found it quite dry.

The Mutual Boiler Insurance Company, who insure my boiler, can prove that this boiler has no leakages. I would beg of you to point out where my paper is “ full of assumption concerning the conditions under which fuel is burnt to the best advantage, kc. I never claimed such a high degree of heat in the furnace as about 4000 deg. Fah. when the gases begin to separate, nor is it likely I should, as you seem to imply.

In conclusion I will only observe that about six years ago the very boiler now in question evaporated not more than about 6i lb. of water per pound of coal, and we were often obliged to stop work on Mondays for want of steam; but in the beginning of 1880 I had finished my first improvement for the prevention of smoke— this apparatus you kindly illustrated, November lflth, 1880—and were then able to evaporate 9 lb. of water per pound of coal; and this is the self-same boiler, with the blow-pipe flame furnace which now evaporates ll'lS lb. of water above stated.

December 22nd.

[Mr. Engert assumes too much concerning our opinions. For the sake of argument we conceded that his arrangements were quite new. The truth is, however, that the long bridge which he uses is an old and well-known device. We stated that his fire-door is a modified Martin’s door. IV hether this is so or not any reader can judge from Mr. Engert’s own drawings, which we published last week. As to the temperature just beyond the damper. “,»“e thermometer registered 200 deg. at one side of the plate and 3oo deg. at the other side, then it is evident that the damper must have been more efficient, surface for surface, than the boiler in reducing the temperature of the gases. Mr. Engert will not main-tain, we suppose, that this new form of damper efficiency augmented that of the boiler. Mr. Engert has yet to explain how more heat cou-d oe got out of the coal than was in it; and with all due deference to Mr. Engert, Mr. D. K. Clark, and Mr. Schi.n-heyder, we decline to believe in the accuracy of their figures It

tl,at * ** •* «•

WOOD’S GRINDING MILL AND SEPARATOR FOR HARD SUBSTANCES.

MESSRS. MORRIS BROS., DONCASTER, MANUFACTURERS

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exhaust fan or fans, the deposit of the powder in the bottom of the said box. n are doors by which the powder may be removed. P is a slide by means of which the strength of the current of air, and consequently the fineness of powder carried over and passing through the opening k, may be regulated. Q is a slide for regulating the quantity of material fed on to the inclined shelves j." We recently saw a set of this machinery at work at Stockwitli-on-Trent, in the works of Messrs. Morris Bros., where large quantities of pliosphatic rocks are reduced for the manufacture of superphosphate manures. The phosphates in the works are from several parts of the world, American, Canadian, and the Estramadura phosphates being most employed. The common practice in manure works where these materials are reduced is to break them up by means of a Blake’s stone breaker, and then feed them into stone mills similar to those used in cement mills. These French burr millstones cost a great deal to keep in repair, and with the object of reducing the cost of reduction, Mr. Wood encouraged by Messrs. Morris tried edge runners for the purpose, and after various trials they have succeeded in making this

The engravings given herewith show an arrangement of edge runner and blast separating apparatus for grinding or reducing ores, phosphates, quartz, or other similar substances to powder, and for separating the ground or reduced substances. The invention is protected under a patent granted to Mr. James Wood, and consists of two main features, namely :—Firstly, an apparatus for grinding or reducing the phosphates or the like to powder wherein the weight of the crushing edge, runners, or wheels is concentrated on a very small space, so that the most refractory materials are crushed by dead weight ; and secondly, of a pneumatic apparatus for separating the ground materials after they leave the grinding or reducing apparatus by means of a current or currents of air which produce a partial vacuum in this apparatus.

In our engravings, diagram Fig. 1 represents in elevation, partly in section, the above apparatus combined, and Figs. 2 ami 3 show the grinding or crushing and elevating apparatus in plan and elevation. The grinding or reducing apparatus is shown at A, and the pneumatic separating apparatus is shown at B. Referring first to the grinding or reducing apparatus, and quoting the inventor’s specification :—

“ Upon a foundation C is supported a pan D, which has a bottom d perforated with tapered holes d¹, the wider part of the said holes being at bottom to prevent clogging. The said pan is rotated by the shaft d? from any convenient motor. In standards or supports E is carried an axle c, upon which are mounted to run freely thereon the edge runners or wheels F, having very narrow faces or peripheries not exceeding 8in. and not less than 4in. in width, according to the

degree of resistance of the material to be treated. The harder | simple form of machine accomplish this work entirely to their the material the less will be the width. The edge runners or satisfaction, the separation of the fine material from the coarse wheels should be made of as great a weight as conveniently, being effected without any trouble by the application of the may be, the narrow peripheries causing the weight to be concen- j inspiration blast of an exhaust fan. We saw the machines trated upon a very small grinding or reducing space. The at work on the hard crystalline Estramadura phosphate, material as it is ground by the runners F passes through the With this, as landed in the works, there is a great deal of small, tapered perforations dl in the bottom of the pan D and falls but a large proportion being of sizes varying from lumps of upon the foundation plate c², from which the scraper c⁸ fixed to four or five to thirty or more cubic inches, the whole, just as it the bottom of the pan D scrapes it into a trunk or shoot C² for comes from the ship, is put into the pan of a heavy pair of edge conducting the material into the receptacle C³. Fig. 2 gives a : runners, and reduced so that the largest pieces passing away are plan of the pan D, showing also an arrangement of stationary scrapers for properly distributing the material. When the said material is to be submitted to the action of the pneumatic separator at B it is passed thereinto either by gravity or by an elevator or Jacob’s ladder G, and discharged into the hopper h leading to the pneumatic apparatus, which consists of a box in which an induced current and partial vacuum are created, the current being in the direction of the arrows and induced by means of an exhaust fan J (or fans) in communication with the outlet at i. The material entering at h falls upon an inclined shelf or a series of inclined shelves j j, being subjected to the

FIC I

to the necessary fineness at the rate of from 20 to 22 cwt. per hour, with the edge runner pan running at the rate of thirty-eight revolutions per minute. The material was at this rate reduced, so that when afterwards tested with the ordinary nest of testing sieves and fine scales, the following figures were obtained:—

For cent, pas 00 07(5

95- 488

96- 512

This gives a total of 11"924 per cent, which would not pass a sieve with 10,000 meshes per inch. That which did not pass a 60-mesh sieve was very small, and the total of insoluble phosphate may be taken as small. This fineness was, however, produced at the rate we have mentioned, and a greater proportion capable of passing through the 100-mesh sieve could be obtained by passing somewhat less than a ton per hour of the small material through the mills so as to give it a longer grinding or pulverising. The power required was not taken during our visit, as it would be difficult to separate the power taken by these mills from other work, but it appears to be certain that the power is less than that used by stones, and Messrs. MorriH will in future use no millstones.

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action of the current of air passing thereover, whereby the finer portions of the material are carried up and through the passage k into the body part of the box, the heavier portions of the said

material passing down the passage or shoot indicated at l, back into the grinding pan D, to be again submitted to the action of the grinding wheels. The box of the pneumatic apparatus is divided into any convenient number of compartments by partitions, as at m, with openings alternately above and below as shown, the object of the said partitions being to baffle the current and cause conjointly with the partial vacuum created by the

not more than the size of large peas. This is, of course, rough work on edge runners ; but although they wear away unevenly, and become hollow and lose their edges, this does not much affect the result, as the material remains in the pan until the medium sizes get crushed under the large pieces, or come into contact with those parts of the edge runners which touch the bed-plate in the pan. From a stone breaker then, or this rough edge runner, the material passes to an edge runner mill like that we illustrate. Here it is kept until ground fine, and elevated by a cup elevator, dropped into a hopper, caught by a blast, the fine particles carried away, the coarse particles carried back to the edge runner pan and ground again. By these means the cost of reduction is very small, and the wear of the edge runners is remarkably small as compared with what would be expected ; and to make the cost of renewal as small as possible, the edge runners are fitted with segmental tires of hard iron, and the pan with a renewable roller path and perforated plates, all of hard iron.

When we saw the mills at work, alargequantity of rock had already been reduced to the pea size, and this, when passed to two distinct mills and separator boxes each like those we illustrate, was reduced

The Augmentation of the United States Navy.—The following estimates for the increase of the navy have been presented to Congress:—Construction of steel vessels as follows: One cruiser of 4500 tons, 650,000 dols.; one of 3000 tons, 465,000 dols.; one dispatch vessel of 1500 tons,240,000 dols.; two heavily armed gunboats of 1500 tons each—each 231,000dols.— 462,000dols.; one light gunboat of 800 tons, 141,000 dols.; one 900-ton gunboat, 158,000 dols.; one cruising torpedo boat, 32,000 dols.; two harbour torpedo boats, 13,000dols.; one sea going armoured vessel of 8500tons displacement, 2,000,000 dols. Total, 4,161,000 dols. Construction of screw vessel, 400,000 dols.; construction of vessels for training squadron, 250,000 dols.; tools for construction of vessels, 150,000 dols.; completing double-turretted monitors, 2,923,654 dols. Machinery for new vessels first mentioned, 2,521,000 dols.; screw vessel, 65,000 dols.; vessels for training squadron, 20,000 dols.; double-turretted monitors 1,279,000dols. Steel rifled breech-loading guns as follows: One 12in. breech-loading rifle, 60,000dols.; one 17in. breech-loading rifle, 170,000dols.; one 12in. breech-loading rifle—wire wound— 60,000 dols.; ammunition for test, 20,000 dols.; total, 310,000dols. Ordnance for steel vessels, 1,701,018 dols.; equipment for steel vessels, 760,000dols.; equipment for screw vessels, 125,000dols. equipment for vessels for training squadron, 75,000 dols.; navigation outfitfor double-turretted monitors 30,000 dols. Total estimates, increase of navy, 15,071,572,62₍dols.; Naval Academy, total 186,023dols.; Marine Corps, total 935,689 dols.; total for naval establishment, 30,654,010 dols

A New Scholarship.—The trustees of the fund resulting from the North-East Coast Exhibition of Naval Architecture and Engineering, held at Tynemouth in 1882, have applied the surplus proceeds of the Exhibition to the foundation of a scholarship of the annual value of £30, tenable for two years, at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, to be called the North-East Coast Naval Architecture and Engineering Exhibition. The college, in accepting the offer of the trustees, has agreed to remit the whole of the fees in the case of the holder of the Exhibition, so that the actual value of the scholarship will be about £60 per annum. Candidates must be apprentices or workmen engaged in one of the shipbuilding or engineering establishments in the district of the Tyne, Wear, or Tees. The Exhibition will be awarded on the result of a competitive examination in elementary mathematics, pure and applied mechanics, physics, and inorganic chemistry, and the Exhibitioner will, in the first instance, be elected for one year, but will continue to hold the Exhibition for a second year if his progress is satisfactory. The first examination will commence on Thursday, January 15th, 1885, and candidates must send their to the secretary of the Durham College of Science before Saturday, January 10th. It is expected that before long a Chair of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering will be founded at the Durham College of Science, and provision will be made for experimental work in connection with this Chair,

names

. 50c.

on or

SIMPLE METHODS OF CALCULATING STRESSES IN GIRDERS.

No. I.

By Charles Lean, M. Inst. C.E.

Girders with parallel flanges.—During the course of a considerable practice in the designing of girders of various forms and conditions of loading, the necessity for a simple, easy, and accurate method for calculating the stresses caused by live and dead loads was brought constantly before the author. All the generally accepted formulae appeared either complicated and tedious in their application on the one hand, or wanting in accuracy, with regard to the stresses caused by the moving loads, on the other. The method adopted by the author to meet these difficulties is the use of coefficients, which, when multiplied by the amounts of live and dead load per bay of the girder, will give the exact stresses caused by these loads under the worst, or any desired, position, of the live load. These coefficients are obtained in the following manner:— Let Fig. 1 represent the girder in which the stresses are required. A letter is attached to each member to distinguish it, and each load is indicated by a number. A table is formed—see Fig. 2—which has a double vertical column for each of the diagonal members, or struts and ties, of the girder; one half for compressive, and the other for tensile stresses. This table has also horizontal lines, one for each loaded point on the girder, intersecting the others. The load on each point is assumed to be divided into as many parts as there are bays in the girder to avoid fractions, and then that number of parts of each weight represented by the number of bays between

the loaded point and the | j abutment will pass to

{left^} abutment. If we deal with only the

vertical components of the stresses in the first place, we can easily trace the effects of each load through the girder. Thus, in load on point 1, the whole will pass up b and nine parts will go down a in compression; one part will go down c in compression, up d in tension, and so on to the end of the girder. In the case of the load on point 2, eight parts will go up c in tension and down a in compression ; and two parts up d in tension and down e in compression. All the vertical effects of the other loads may be traced in the same manner. These effects are all written down in the table, Fig. 2, the effect of each weight on any particular strut or tie being placed at the intersection of the horizontal line, answering to tiie weight, and the vertical column belonging to the member of the girder in question. Care must, of course, be taken to write the effect in the + or - part of the double column, according as the stress is compressive or tensile. The totals of the vertical columns will now represent the maximum effects produced by the loads; and the effect on the girder of a live load only partly covering the span can be ascertained by adding up the effects of only those loads covered by the position of the live load. Thus, for instance, in the diagonal g, when the live load covers the points 1, 2, and 3, there will be a compressive stress in it of six parts, because this is the sum of the effects of the loads at these three points; but if the train is coming from the other end of the girder, or has passed on beyond g in going off the bridge, there will be a tensile stress in this diagonal of twenty-one parts. The totals of these columns the author therefore designates “ coefficients of live load and it is manifest that as they depend only on the general form of the girder and number of bays into which it is divided, they are applicable to the form shown in Fig. 1, whatever the span or depth of the girder may be, or whatever the amount and ratio of the live and dead loads. Consequently, the table being once made, will apply to all future calculations for the same form of girder, and thus a vast amount of time and labour will be saved. The algebraical sum of the totals of the pair of vertical columns answering to each member of the girder will give the effects when the girder is fully loaded; or, in other words, the differences of eacn pair of the + and - columns will give another set of coefficients, which represent the effect of the dead load alone or of the live and dead loads together, when the girder is uniformly loaded. These the author calls coefficients of dead load. The actual maximum stress in each vertical member of the girder will be exactly equal to the sum of the amounts of live and dead loads per bay, multiplied respectively by the largest live load and the dead load coefficients, actual maximum stress in the diagonals is found in the same way, but the total must be multiplied by the length of the diagonal, and divided by the depth of the girder. The nature of the total stress, whether compressive or tensile, is indicated by the + or - signs of the coefficients. As the coefficients represent a number of parts of each unit of load, they must, in applying them as above to ascertain actual stresses, be divided by the number of parts into which each unit was divided when forming the table, Fig. 2, or by the number of bays in the girder. The question whether any strut or tie is subjected to both compression and tension under varying circumstances of the live load isfound by ascertaining the stress and caused bythedead load, as above described, and the stress caused by the live load, using the coefficient with the opposite sign to that of the dead load coefficient. If the latter is greater than the former, the nature of the stress will change, and the amount of the opposite kind of stress will be represented by the difference of the two quantities. Thus, if the girder, Fig. 1, had the following dimensions:—Span = 100, depth = -jL of span = 10, No. of bays = 10, dead load = 5, live load = 10, total load = 15 per bay, the stresses in “A” and “<jr” would be as below :—

the

all girders of

The

Live load Dead load

10    10 = 100

5    5 =    25

j.

_____ Popfa

75 + 10 = 7'50 tons actual maximum amount of tension.

This member will therefore be subjected to maximum stresses of 17| tons compression or tons tension, according to the position of the live load.

Amount of loads per day.

Tensile stress in “g ” = Live load — 21 x 10 = 210 Dead load — 15 x 5 = 75

Coefficients.

- Parts.

285 x x

lenSth of diag. ) ₌40-299 tons actual maximum tensile stress 10 depth of girder i

And compressive stress in “g” — +

Coeff. Load.

6 X 10 = GO 15 x 5 = 75

As the stress caused by the dead load is greater than that caused by the live load, there is no compression—i.e.,change in the nature of the stress—under any circumstances of the live load. When this result has been arrived at for any member of the girder there will be no member between this one and the nearest abutment in which the nature of the stress will change.

The coefficients for any bay in the flanges is the total of the dead load coefficients of the diagonals between that bay and the abutments; but, as there is no change in the nature of the stresses in the flanges, these coefficients are multiplied by the totals of the dead and live load per bay. Thus in Bthe coefficient is 45* + 35° + 25* = 105, and in D = 105b + 15‘ + 5‘ =125. If the depth of the girder is equal to the length of one bay, the actual maximum stress is equal to the coefficient multiplied by the total dead or live load per bay and divided by the number of bays. In the example above it would be:—

Tons. Parts.

Coeff.

in B, 105 x 15 x ^ = 157’50 tons.

Coeff.

in D, 125 x 15 x * = 187‘50 tons.

This latter amount is the maximum stress at the centre of

Tons. Parts.

the girder, and agrees with the common rule

Live load. Dead load, m = 100 +

50 = 150, then

150 x 100

= 187'50

8 x 10

If the depth of the girder is not equal to the length of one bay, the result must be multiplied by the length of the bay and divided by the depth of the girder. The following is a complete example of the calculation of the stresses in the main girders for a bridge of 150ft. span intended to carry a metre gauge railway, with a live load of 1 ton per foot of span for the first 50ft. and -^ths of a ton per foot for the remainder of the span, the form of the girder being similar to that shown on Fig. 1:—

JL

FIG.I

JL

£_

71    0/p

l <!) j It IT ® L ^ M 0 N (8) O e5 P ® O. <£) " 31

Numbers of loads.

Fio. 2.

« i> I c__d__eJJ_J________

+;-+- + -+-+;-;+!- + h⁺Z’± i-c

Coefficients of live load........

2“

>•

1-4 ©4 CO

co to

CC tO M

45

CO

::

6 6 21 15 10 10i 15    |

Coefficients of dead load........45

Number of loads.

Coefficients of livo

load

10    35    25    25 i 15    15 j 5 j 5

Fig. 2 (continued).

+J

1+

l_«

04 CO

05

CO C4

•8

lO

Ll

«c ¹-!-

l + i~

I to oo ^ a oo to

10151510 6 2121 6 3 28 28 3 1 36    10 45

Coefficients of dead load........

5    15    15    25    25    35    10    45

Coefficients

=    45

Coefficients

A or H = 45+35 = 80.

B or G = 80+ 25 = 105.

Cor F =105+15 = 120.

D or E = 120 + 5 = 125.

A number of sets of coefficients for various forms of girders, prepared as above, are given at the end of this paper. These are respectively applicable to girders of the forms indicated in the sketch given above each set, whatever the span, weight, load, or proportion of depth to span may be.

I, J, Q, or R K or P = 45+35 =    80

L or O = 80+25 = 105 M or N = 105+15 = 120

Class A.—Load on Bottom Flange. Ten Bays.

c. p

Xg Ki i

JL

n/° ?A r

7 J ) * JL JM" J 11    ) ug Pi ) a X3 R

FIG 2

Amount of loads

“A” Live load - + 15 x^lO^ 150 Dead load +    5 x 5 =    25

Coefficients.

actual maximum compressive stress.

- Parts.

175 + 10 = + 17-50 tons

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

a b c (l e / g h

_1+3+

Coefficient L.L. .. 45

= 10.

No. of bays Length of ditto = 15ft.

21-21

Span = 150ft.

Depth = 15ft.

Length of diagonal = 21 '21ft., or

Tons.

Dead load = 70 on two girders = 35 on Live „ = 110

Total „ =180

Top Flange-

IT

= 1-414.

Letters

and

signs.

Tons.

= 55

Tons.

one girder = 3"5 per bay. „    = 5-5 „    „

51 • I

35 28

i"y-T!- +

8 8j28 21 j 0 0 21 16

I i 12

I i 12 ⁻ 1 + 12

>>

>>

= 90

»>

,,    — 9"0 ,,    ,,

Coefficients.

Parts.

Tons.

A and H =

B and G =

C and F =

D and E =    125

Bottom Flange—

IJ and IIQ K and P L and O M and N

Struts—

II II II II

80

105

120

45

80

105

120

Coefficients. Parts.

a and s = +    45 x^xOx 1*414 =

28 x 5-5 = 1.54-0 d andp = + 25 x 3'5 = 87'5

241-5 x

21 x 5-5 = 115-5 / and n = + 15 x 35 = 52‘5

168-0 x

15    5-5 = 82-5

h and l = + 5    35 = 17’5

j = no stress.

Tics-b and r — -

Coefficients.

10

II II II II

Maximum stress in tons.

72-00

94-50

108-00

112-50

II II II II

Maximum stress in tons.

Parts.

A —

57-27

24-15

16-80

100-0 x

Parts.

36 x 5-5 = 198 0 c and q = - 35 x 3‘5 = 122'5

10-00

Maximum stress in tons.

=    9-00

- Parts. Prop, length.

320-5 x * x 1-414    =    45-32

28 x 5-5 = ) c and o = - 25 x 3"5 = )

21 x 5-5 = g and m = - 15 x 3*5 =

15 x 5-5 = i and k = - 5 x 3"5 =

Change in Nature of Stresses—

Coeffs. Tons.

Aand£,andiandfc= 10 x 5'5 = 55"0 5 x 3-5 = 17-5

24*15

16-80

1000

(see struts d and p)

(see struts / and n)

(see struts h and l)

x 1-414 = 34-15

x 1-414 = 23-76

x 1-414 = 14-14

--Parts.

37 ‘5 x ^=375 tons tension in h and l.

3-75 x 1’414 = 5"31 tons compression in i and k.

Coeffs. Tons.

f and n, and g and m = 6 x 5"5 = 33"0 15 x 3-5 = 52-5

No tension in f and n, or compression in g and m,

Coefficient D.L. ..| 45    10    35    25    25    15    15    5

Tabic of Coefficients (continued).

Letters

and

signs.

+1-

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.

Letters.

Coefficients.

Letters.

Coefficients.

Letters and — signs. +

10 15

1510

+ illli

6 3 28

21 21

28 3

15    15

25

25

<1

-!+

1 35

10 45

35    10    45

Table of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flange.

80

45

+ fcJ

+ *5

105

120

125

125

120

105

80

Bottom Flange.

45 !    | 105 j

120

120

105

80

45

45

Eight Bays.

FIC.3

VO

71

L (J M V N

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

CoefT. L.L. 28    0

Coeff. D.L. 28

Letters

and

signs.

Coeff. L.L.

Coeff. D.L.

d.

8    1 21 15    3    3 15 10    6

20

12

12

Table of Coefficients (continued.)

6 10 10 6

Letters.

Coefficients.

rC j

.1

3 15

15

1 21

12

12

20

Table of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flange.

48

60

64

64

60

48

Bottom Flange.

Fight Days.

Letters.

Class C.—Load on Bottom Flange. Ten Days.

Coefficients.

28

28

48

60

60

48

28

28

l/c

<e

'm \u /o Xp

'c\d/e

f!

'a

tyr

Class A.—Load on Top Flange. Ten Days,

aO bOcOd'OeOfOc

FIC 7

it.

o_±

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

n O D O p G D

FIG .IQ

Letters

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

and

signs. +

PIG 4-

Tablc of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

Coeff. L.L. 28

Coeff. D.L. 28

28    21    1    1 21 15

3    3 15 10    6 6 10

Letters

and

signs.

+ -j+L!+M+|-

f | g h i | j | k + - j-i---f|- -4---

28

20

20

12

12

Coefficient L.L. 25

25 20

to

16 12

2 212

4 4' 9' 6!

Letters

and

signs.

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.

a | b e j d j e j / g h

+H+ ~ +j -fj+h +■ ^

45 45    1 36 36 1 3 28 28 ) 3 6 21 21 6

.. 45 ! 45    35 | 85    25    25 j 15    15

Table of Coefficients (continued).

Tabic of Coefficients (continued).

10

15

10

5 i 10

Letters

and

signs.

Coeff. L.L.

6 10

10

3    15

15    3

21 21 1

28

28

Coeff. D.L.

12

12

20

20

28

28

Letters

and

signs.

Letters

and

signs.

+ -+ -j+ - + -+- +

-i+~l+- +'-

Coefficient L.L.

.. 10 15 21 6 6 21 28 3 3 28 36

t-*

1 36 45

i 45

Table of Coefficients for Flanges,

Top Fi-anoe.

Table of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flange.

Coefficient D.L.

.J 5    15    15    25    25    35 I 35    45    45

Letters.

Letters.

Table of Coefficients for Flanges.

Top Flange.

Coefficients.

56

90

120

128

120

96

56

Coefficients 25    65    95    115    125    1 25    115    95    65    25

Letters.

II

Bottom Flange.

Bottom Flange.

Coefficients

45

80

105

120

125

125

120

105

80

45

Lottors.

Letters.

Bottom Flange.

Coefficients.

28

76

108

124

124

108

76

28

Coefficients

20

60

90

110

120

120

110

90

60

20

Lotters.

Coefficients.

45

80

105

120

120

105

80

45

Class B.—Load on Top Flange. Ten Days.

A Ct b n c

-ft.

Si

£.

C_

Eight Days.

JL

£.

r._

jl

Eight Days.

c Q n O e O F

'l

'e

(9

'm /o

a\p/c

't

Wt xyv

Q-c

JH

FIG 8

FIC.II

fi

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

~J

IT

FIC.5

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

Lotters

and

signs.

a.

Letters and signs.

Coefficient L.L.

h Coefficient D.L. ..I 45

| +1- Z'll

45 45

36

45    35

+ - '±1 - ± 3±E!± I ±I3±E

*.....6)21 21 0 10]l5 lsjlO

25 I 15    15    5,6

86 1 328 85    25

■>

::

I,otters and signs.

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.

b c d | e ¹ / j g h i

~ +i" +1-

- + 1-

12 0 1

. L+

16    16    12    12    8 | 8    4 I 4    0

Coeff. L.L.

28 28

1 21 21

1    8 15 15

I¹⁰l

Table of Coefficients (continued.)

CocfT. D.L

28

28

20

20

12. 12

Table of Coefficients (continued).

Lottors

and

signs.

11

Coefficient L.L.

15

10

Lottors

and

Bigns.

Coefficient D.L.

10 15 21 6 5    16

Lotters

21

16

28 8 3 28 86 1

36j45| |    |45

Table of Coefficients (continued).

| j & I l I m I n o I p

25 | 25    85

85 | 45 | 45

and

signs.

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.....

I+I-J+ -|+H+ -)+|-j+ -|+|- +!-+|-

Coeff. L.L.

10 15

16 21 1

1 21

28

28

Tabic of Coefficients for Flanges.

Top Flange.

CocfT. D.L.

12

12

20

20

28

28

1 able of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flanoe.

Lotters.

Tabic of Coefficients for Flanges.

Top Flange.

Coefficients

45

125

185

225

245

245

225

185

125

45

Lottors.

Lottors.

Coefficients.

t 5 CO

w +63

w+ j S

64

64

60

48

II

28

Letters.

Coefficients.

o +W

64    64    56    40    16

Bottom Flanoe.

Bottom Flange.

Bottom Flange.

Coefficients.

90

160

210

240

250

240

210

160

Letters.

.1

90

Letters.

Coefficients.

28

48

60

60

48

28

A (T

Ql*.

Eight Bays.

p'OeQfQcQh

Coefficients.

12

36

52

00

00

52

36

12

Class B.—Load on Bottom Flange. Ten Days.

A B C O E F

JG_

ji

f A\e A V

1.

</k\l m\n

IP

a/ xb

le

fo

/s\t

FIG fi

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

A (D ft(

Class C.—Load on Top Flange. Ten Days.

FIG.12

e'.5

_g¹

jl

J UK UlOmOim OoOpUftOR

FIC.6

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics.

b c I d j e

-;+ -36 28 3

Coefficient D.L. ..! 45 ) 45    85    35    25

Table of Coefficients (continued).

n 0 | p ! q

21 6 3 28 28 3 1 36 36 1 15    25 ! 25 ! 35    35

Letters

and

signs.

- + - + -| +

Coefficient L.L.

Letters

and

signs.

.. 45

45 36 1 1

IH+-

-1-

Coefficient L.L. .. 10

15 15 10

21

28 21

25    15

21

15

lsjiojio 15

5 ]• 5

15

Letters

and

signs.

Cooff. L.L.

Coeff. D.L.

I,cl tors

and

signs.

Coeff. L.L.

28

28

21 21

1    3 15

16    3

6 1010

28

10

Coeff. D.L.

28

20

20

12

12

Lotters

and

signs.

Table of Coefficients (continued).

10

15

12

3 15

12

21

20

21

20

28

28

28

28

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.

Letters

and

signs.

Coefficient L.L.

+ - + -j+ -|+l- + -;+- + -]+-'+ -1+ -)+ -

20!    20 25    1116 21 S 12 16 1 4 912 2j 0 6, 9 4

20 | £0 j 25 | 15 | 20 | 10    16 j 5 | 10 | 0 | 5

Table of Coefficients {continued).

m ji o

Coefficient D.L.

15

45

Tabic of Coefficients for Flanges.

Top Flange.

Coefficient D.L.

1 tmimi 11 ±LJ i Jit f pHdiql i

9 4 6 6 l‘2j 2 4 9 1o| 1 2 12 20; 1 16 25) j 20 20 5 0 10 5 15 10 j 20 j 15 j 25 20 20

Table of Coefficients for Flanges.

Top Flange.

Letters.

II

Table of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flange.

Letters.

ABODE F O H I + + + + + +    + + +

Coefficients.

28

76

108

124

124 |

108

76

28

Letters.

Coefficients.

90

160

210

240

250    240

210

160

90

Bottom Flange.

Coefficients

g + bs

+ S3

+ =1

00    110    120    120    110    90    00

Bottom Flanoe.

Letters,

*■» 1

Bottom Flange.

Letters.

Coefficients.

56

96

120

128

120

96

56

Letters.

S3

Coefficients.

45

125

185

225

245

245

225

185

125

45

N.B.—The ilango coefficients of the Warren girders (Class B) must be divided hv 2.

Coefficients

25

65

95

115

125

125

115

us

Eight Bags.

FIC.13

Letters.

Bottom Flange.

AMERICAN NOTES.

(From our own Correspondent.)

I

sss

-J

E Df Qc

Coefficients.

28

108

124

124

108

70

28

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

Class D.— Load on Top Flange. Ten Bags.

FIC 16

Letters

and

signs.

c-

s.

N.

Coefficient L.L.

+ 18

l-< I + I

I I-

*- 1 +-I

_4_LlL

a> I + I

S3

Coefficient D.L.

12    12    16    8    12    4

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

Tabic of Coefficients (continued).

j j lc | t | m j n ¹ o | p j a

_____+FE3±3Ii+;I'+ B±: _

Coefficient L.L.......C 2 4 4 9| 1 2 ti'l2

4 | 0 j 8    4 i 12    8

Lotters

and

signs.

Letters

and

signs.

a' \ a 5 \ V

d \ c'

d!

Coefficient D.L.

Letters.

Coefficients.

Letters.

Coefficients.

1+1

1 016 12 16 12

l_5 I ± I

12

Tabic of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flange.

4-tel

op

Bottom Flange.

16

40

50

04-

64

64

Cri

to

56

Class D.—Load on Bottom Flange. Ten Bags.

A.

CO

Ci

40

rH

16

-| q + - + -j + — j + | 1---

1+7

+1-

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.

Letters

and

signs.

45

45 45

10    1 36 3(>j 110    3;28

45    45 I 45 I 10 j 35    35    10

25

Table of Coefficients (continued).

h e'

VM-

Coefficient L.L. |21 G10|

Coefficient D.L. I 15 , 10

+ |-|+ "!+ - + -loj 15 15 1010

5 i 5    1 10

15

.51+

Letters

and

signs.

281 3

25

lOj 6 21

10    15

g' , m | n h’

+p

21 6 6 21 10|

10    15    15 I 10

Table of Coefficients (continued).

i'

t k'

+1- +|- + -

Coefficient L.L. 28| 8| 3[28 10 25 I 10

Coefficient D.L.

25

36

35

+1-1+

1 36 10    45    45 45

35 | 10    45 i 45    45

CL

.K,

Err.

4 ji'S/f 4

2±

Tabic of Coefficients for Flanges. Tor Flanoe.

Letters.

l o M oN o ° op FIC.14-

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

T 'W

Coefficients.

45

-I a

-f

New York, December 17th.

- Unusual interest has been developed within a week or two in the Southern pig iron question. A large supply was threatened, but Pennsylvania furnace men reduced quotations within a few days from HO cents to 1 dol. per ton, and to-day’s quotations arc 19 dols. for No. 1, 18 dols. for No. 2, and l(i to 17 dols. for middle irons. It costs from 9 to 12 dols. per ton to make iron in Alabama or Tennesee, and the freight ranges from 4'50 to 6 dols. per ton to northern parts. Very little Southern iron can crowd its way in against Northern iron at the reduction. The movements in the trade are extremely sluggish. A few speculative inquiries received to-day. Railway requirements are held in check. The latest report foots up 25,000 tons at 27 dols. at mill. The builders of the projected line in Mexico are about despatching an agent abroad to place order for the 100 miles of road, one-half cash and one-half bonds. Very little improvement will be expected by the iron trade this month.

Our latest advices from Pennsylvania show a general unsatisfactory state of affairs. The rolling capacity is being cut down. The January requirements will probably be large, and in view of securing them some very low prices have been quoted. Beams and girders offered at 3-25dols.; pole iron at 2dols.; steel nails are selling at2,20dols.; Bessemer iron is offered at 18'50 dols.

Railway earnings show up unfavourably. Several important enterprises are projected, but there is no assurance as yet that hiil;*• supplies will I"- required.

Industrial disturbances are increasing, and wages are declining in all branches of trade. The depression is likely to continue. Capitalists are contemplating the purchasing of iron and lumber supplies on a large scale, in view of an active spring demand.

A good many believe that the same mistake will be made at this time as was made from five to ten years ago—that is, in carrying restriction to too great lengths. A careful investigation made by high commercial authority shows that, as against twelve months o, wages have been diminished 20 per cent., and implements 66 per cent., while according to our best commercial authority, the decline at this city as compared to last reaches 18 per cent, in the volume of business.

A gradual improvement is in progress, but it is of slow growth. The textile industries are deluged with an over-supply of stock. The supply of money is abundant for first-class borrowers, and the demand for funds is exceptionally light, because of the widespread industrial inactivity. At Philadelphia 1500 weavers and shoemakers are on strike, and in the interior a large number of miners are still on strike. The prospects are not inviting, but a foundation is being laid for a resumption of activity early in the spring, with light stocks and cost of production at the minimum.

were

are

125

185

225

245

245

225

185

125

45

Letters

and

signs.

Coefficient L.L. 45 Coefficient D.L. 45

+ |- + 45 46

+ |-

-4-

10

1 so'so 1

10

2S

28

l-

Bottom Flanoe.

45 J 45

10

86    35

10

25

25

+ -j+ -

10 6 21

10    15

Letters.

THE IRON, COAL, AND GENERAL TRADES OF BIRMINGHAM, WOLVERHAMPTON, AND OTHER DISTRICTS.

{From our own Correspondent.)

Coefficients.

45

125

185

225

245

225

185

126

45

Tabic of Coefficients (continued).

Letters

and

sings.

to n I o

Eight Bags. FIC.17

Coefficient L.L.

21

Coefficient D.L.

- + -J + -| + -

0    10 10 15 15 10

1101510

10 15

10

15 ! 10    5 ! 5

10 ! 6

5    10

+ “l+l- + -21 6 6|21 10 15    15    10

aX d

aO bO cO nO eO rO cO H-

TTBl' TOTiS vtYl

Lcttcrs

and

signs.

Tabic of Coefficients (continued).

| w | x j y | * | a’ | 6' | d d' \ e’

!+~|+P+ -(+-1+ -l+i-i+l- + -j+l-

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Ties.

Letters

and

Coefficient L.L. 28 3, 3j28    10 30 lj 136 ]lo|45' j 45|45|

Coefficient D.L. 25    25    10    35 j 35

Tabic of Coefficients for Flanges.

Top Flanoe.

10 ! 45 j 45 j

45

signs.

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L.

_l±H±'z.!±U±|d±L!±!q±lz ±!—Il£

. ,.]2S|    ;2S28i    8    1:21211 1 8j 3jl5 15 3

. ..I 28 28 ! 28 ' 8 ' 20 | 20 ' 8 12 12

Letters.

la

Letters

and

signs.

Coefficients

12;.

45

185

225

245

125

Coefficient L.L.

Coefficient D.L. ..    .

Table of Coefficients (continued).

LlL*

+i- +j- + - +'- +j- +!- + - +j-:+|-

~ ~| s| , 6₍10 10 6 8! lo| 6 ojlO 8 15, 3 3'l5

8    4    4,8    4    4    8    12    12

Bottom Flanoe.

r

Letters.

LMN0PQR8

Table of Coefficients (continued).

Coefficients

45

125

185

225

245

245

225

185

125

45

Letters

and

signs.

Coefficient L.L.

Eight Bags.

Coefficient D.L.

+q+i

8 21I 1,21 8 8 20 20 8

4 *~

28

8I+-

28 28 : 28

Table of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flanoe.

I?

K O L O M

FIC.15

Table of Coefficients for Struts and Tics. j a ■ b

lidii

Coefficient L.L....... 28    28 28!

Coefficient D.L

Letters

and

signs.

_+J

_L

e_\j

+H+ -

+ 1-

1 21 21 1

+ -j+ -

315 151 3

Letters.

Coefficients.

Letters.

28

76

108

124

124

108

76

28

Bottom Flanoe.

I ²⁸1

28

28

20 , 20

12 12

Coefficients.

28

76

10S

124

124

108

76

28

Letters

and

signs.

Table of Coefficients (continued). j lc j l I m

+ - + - ‘ +|-j+|-j+ "

I_w_

N.B.—All the coefficients for the girders with verticals and crossed diagonals (Class D) must be divided by 2.

The year which has now closed has been an unsatisfactory one for the iron and steel trades of the West Midlands. The demand has all along been considerably within the supply, and makers have been mostly dependent upon a hand-to-mouth trade. Month after month hopes nave been entertained that settled improvement would manifest itself, but these hopes have been disappointed, and pt as to sheets, orders have ruled throughout the twelvemonth h within the average.

Even less satisfactory than the demand have been the prices which have had to be accepted. While there have been no important changes under this head during the year, still the tendency has constantly been in a downward direction. All efforts to strengthen prices have been unavailing, and even the strike of colliers, which lasted throughout July, August, and September, had no stimulating effect. More work would have been turned out if it had been possible to accept many of the prices offered by merchants; but as the execution of such orders would have left ironmasters with a balance on the wrong side, the business has been allowed to pass to other districts, particularly Lancashire, North Staffordshire, South Wales, and the North of England, where the low prices could be better accepted. Some of these districts have also been sending iron, especially of a constructive sort, right into the heart of the Midlands at prices 10s. and 20s. per ton below those at which native makers could afford to sell, and this competition still continues.

The quarterly meetings which opened the year were exceedingly quiet, and prices were weak. There was less doing than at the corresponding meeting a year before, and makers complained of being unable to obtain specifications for orders which they had booked early in the previous quarter. Sheets were in leading demand, but at prices so low that makers in many cases were compelled to refuse the orders offered. Marked bars were quoted 17 10s., with the usual 12s. fid. extra for Lord Dudley’s brand. Unmarked bars were good and plentiful at £6 5s. to £6 10s., and common sheets, singles, might have been bought at as low as £7 5s. Prices for sheets declined so steadily that in March a committee of the trade was appointed to decide upon the most suitable mode of restricting the output, but after several meetings it was found that the interest was too large to be controlled, and the attempt had to be abandoned. Nevertheless, private reduction of output occurred in various directions. At the April quarterly meetings nominal quotations for finished iron were unaltered, but prices were practically lower to the extent of from 5s. to 7s. fid. per ton. Unmarked iron was from £G to £6 15s. for bars, and from £7 upwards for common sheets. Prices of galvanised sheets showed a drop in some cases of 10s. on the quarter. Transactions in finished iron all round were very limited. In May a reduction in ironworkers’ wages of 3d. per ton to puddlers, making the wages 7s. 3d., and of 2^ per cent, to millmen came into operation. This naturally did not strengthen prices, though masters, as a rule, refused much concession. The end of June saw the final closing of the old-established Osier Bed Ironworks, Wolverhampton, on account of the depression, where for many years sheets and tin-plates and iron plates had been manufactured. Almost simultaneously, however, the extensive new basic steelworks at 'Wolverhampton, of the Staffordshire Steel and Ingot Iron Company were started.

exce

muc

Coefficient L.L. .. Coefficient D.L. ..

6 | 810 6 6 18    4    4    8    4

I___

815 3 3 15

8 12 12

Table of Coefficients (continued).

Letters

and

signs.

it v i ic x j y

Coefficient L.L.

j+ -.+ -+!-;+ -|+|-i+j-j+ -

¹    8 20j | |28j28 : |

8 21

1 121

Coefficient D.L,

20 8 , 20 28

....., 8 j 20

Table of Coefficients for Flanges. Top Flanoe.

| 28

Letters.

+ •*<

Coefficients.

28

TO

108

108

76

28

Naval Engineer Appointments.—The following appointments have been made at the Admiralty:—Joseph Minhinnick, chief engineer, to the Triumph; David Cartmel, chief engineer, to the Triumph, for Esquimalt Yard; Josiali P. Thomas and Charles M. B. Dyer, engineers, to the Triumph; George C. Bath, assistant engineer, to the Triumph; and Edward Gallery, assistant engineer, additional, to the Triumph.

Water Communication hktwkkn Manchester and Liverpool.—A special meeting of the Bridgewater Navigation Company was held on AVednesday at Manchester to consider a scheme for the improvement of the navigation of the Irwell and Mersey by deepening, wideuing, and straightening the rivers, and constructing the rivers, and constructing new locks, weirs, and other works. The estimated cost of the improvement is £324,000. It provides for reducing the number of locks from eleven to six, a shortening of route by several miles, and making the rivers navigable for boats of several times the tonnage of those which can now use them. The chairman said the Company had the necessary Parliamentary power to carry out the work. The scheme was approved by the shareholders.

At the Midsummer quarterly meetings nominal quotations were still upheld at £7 10s.; but excellent bars were, nevertheless, to be had .at £7 and £6 10s. Unmarked bars were £5 15a. and £5 12s. fid. Sheets shared in the general depression, and singles changed hands at £0 15s. Business was exceptionally flat, and buyers were very few. Throughout nearly the whole of the succeeding three months large numbers of the colliers were on strike against a reduction of 4d. per stint in the thick coal seams and 2d. per stint in the thin coal seams, declared by the Arbitrator to the Wages’ Board. The strike ended in the masters’ favour; and when the October quarterly meetings came round the market was firmer for unmarked sheets, and an improved demand was reported for bars and hoops. Sheet prices had advanced from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per ton, bringing singles up again to £7, doubles to £7 7s. 6d. and £7 10s., and lattens £8 10s. Rates for other descriptions were not, however, stronger. Common bars were to had at well under £6.

The last quarter of the year has brought but little change. The hopes excited in some directions by the better tone of the October gatherings soon sank, wanting an influx of orders to warrant a continuance of their entertainment; and, in the absence of specifications of importance for shipment, the trade has continued quiet, and makers have not found it easy work to provide their mills and forges with work. Prices of marked iron keep on the basis of £7 10s, for bars fixed nearly two years ago; while the existing

the

Woodford crown sneets are ssa ius., Jt'ii, an ius., ana Jtio, according to the foregoing gauges. Best Woodford sheets are £11,

is felt in the future

cent.; but there are some district brands

are

during the past week, weather has brought forward more inquiry, and there has also been extra buying to cover requirements prior to the holidays. Users of common round coals for forge and ironmaking purposes, and of engine fuel for steam purposes, have also been getting in extra stocks in anticipation of the usual stoppages of the pits. There has, however, been no actual activity in trade, and pits have still only been running short time, with stocks in some cases accumulating. Prices are nominally unchanged, but there is a good deal of underselling, especially with coal coming in from outside districts, both Yorkshire and Derbyshire being very keen competitors here. For Lancashire coals, best qualities average 9s., with 9s. 6d. being got in exceptional cases; seconds, 7s. to 7s. 6d., with one or two special qualities fetching 8s.; common round coal, 5s. 6d. to 6s.; burgy, 4s. 6d. to 5s.; best slack, 4s. to 4s. 3d.; and common about 2s. 9d. to 3s. 3d. per ton at the pit.

Some of the colliers have been fairly busy with shipping orders for steam coal, but this branch of trade is generally quiet, with prices ruling low.

For coke there is a fairly good demand in one or two districts, especially Bolton, where the leading iron and engineering works busy, and good ordinary qualities are fetching about 9s. to 10s. per ton at the ovens, with best qualities quoted at 12s. to 13s. There is, however, only a dull demand generally.

Barrow.—I have to report a continuance of the firmer tone which for the past two or three weeks has characterised the hematite iron trade of the district. Little new business is being done, as a disposition prevails, which is usual at this time of the year, not to place orders until the expiration of the holidays, which, as far as business men are concerned, may be said to have already commenced. Makers are unwilling to accept orders for forward delivery, except at an advance in prices. The shipments which have of late taken place to the Continent have had the effect of considerably reducing stocks, a process which has also been aided by makers generally showing a reluctance for the present

arc

SM

sen

not succeeded in su Trade during 1884

as armour plates and railway rolling stock—what Sir speaking at Brightside “the trade prospects for 1884 as very gloomy.” Perhaps there never has been a year when more work was done for less money. In many departments there has been nothing to complain of in the volume of work, but the price has been so lean as.scarcely to leave a profit. Leading firms, whose fame is world-wide and who arc scarcely affected by fluctuations, readily admit that the year has even told upon them; others, with limited connections who have to struggle for business, have felt the depression keenly. Our chief cutlery firm, who employ 3000 hands, inform me that the Bombay and Calcutta demand for razors has been remarkably well sustained; but owing to the drought they have been unable to get a sufficient number of ground. At the end of December, 1884, they find themselves just able to clear off the 1883 orders. American competition in razors and high-class cutlery has been a comparative failure. Principal silver and electro-plating firms have also done fairly well, several exceptional orders for the Nile expeditionary force being among thelinesfortheyear. Thedrought in Queensland hasseriously affected the demand for sheep shears and other articles required by wool growers. As yet the Franco-Chinese difficulty has not adversely influenced Sheffield trade; but it is believed that in the new year the Shanghai indents will reflect the evil effects of war in commerce. The Cape business has been in a state of collapse owing to political disquietude. Egypt has been similarly affected, and Cairo and Alexandria merchants have ordered comparatively little. Canada has been languid, and America, absorbed in its Presidential contest, is now almost tariff

as stocks must be almost cleared out, and store-keepers have latterly been ordering from hand to mou is also expected with Australia. Our armour-plate mills, which have been running extra time to complete orders for our own Government, are certain to be fully employed during the next twelve months, and the three great gun-making firms of Sheffield expect continuous orders for heavy forgings in 1885.

Oil

rates for unmarked iron are almost the lowest touched for some years. Puddlers’ wages remain at 7s. 3d., but a re-arrangement of millmen’s wages at the Chillington Company’s Works, Wolverhampton, is pending.

The South Staffordshire and East Worcestershire pig iron trade has declined during the year both alike as to extent of output and the prices realised. Medium and common qualities have occupied relatively a better position than all-mine sorts, though even these makers have had to be clever in selling against the increasing quantities of pigs imported from Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Nottingham, Northampton, and other districts. Makers of allmines have had great cause of complaint, and still have, concerning the competition from the steel-making pigs, whose prices—in some cases never before so low—have prevented all-mine makers from getting profitable rates. In actual business, hot blast allmines have lost between 2s. 6d. to 5s. per ton on the year, and are now 55s. to 60s. nominal; medium qualities have lost nearly 5s., and are now 42s. to 45s.; and common pigs have lost almost as much, and are now 35s. to 37s. 6d. Early next year the number of furnaces producing medium and common quality pigs is likely to increase.

The business of the week has been of a very tame sort, having been confined mostly to the clearing off of orders, for the delivery of which buyers have during the last two or three weeks been pressing. The mills and forges have been engaged pretty full time, but the suspension of work which has now taken place will in many cases be of longer duration than usual consequent upon the shortness of orders.

Sheet makers report the largest reserve of business, but the production this month has been much less than the average at this time of the year, export orders having fallen off to a greater extent than home requirements. Consequent upon the holidays, there will this week be no meeting of ’Change in Birmingham, and gathering in Wolverhampton on Wednesday will, it is anticipated, be of a purely formal character, and devoid of any real business. A few of the works where fair orders are still in hand will restart on Tuesday or Wednesday of next week, but the majority will remain closed the whole of next week. Meanwhile repairs to plant and machinery will be carried out.

Prices are without alteration on the week, though compared with say a month ago, actual prices have fallen in some cases 2s. 6d., and in other cases 5s. per ton. Common sheets may now be bought down to £610s. for merchant singles, though the general quotation is £6 15s. to £7. £6 10s. is asked for good medium bars, £6 for ordinary, and £510s. is the minimum for common. £6 to £6 5s. and £6 10s., according to quality, is asked for hoops, and £5 15s. and rather less for gas tube strip iron. Nail rods are easier because of the recent drop of 5s. per ton in Belgian sorts.

Woodford black sheets of 20 b.g., delivered to outports, are £8 5s., 21 to 24 b.g. £9 15s.,25and 26 g. £11 5s., and 28 g. £1115s.

sheets are £9 10s., £11, £12 10s., and £13, accord-£12 10s., £14, and £14 10s.; and double best £12 10s , £14, £15 10s., and £16. Siemens-Martin steel sheets are quoted £13 for 20 g., £14 10s. for 21 and 24 g., £16 for 25 and 26 g., and £16 10s. for 28 g.

Advices from Melbourne state that when the mail left, galvanised iron was moving off quietly. Quotations ranged from £19 to £21, according to brand and parcel. Bars and rods were quoted at £9 to £9 10s., but.tho trade doing was only moderate. Sheets had been quitted at £1110s. for Nos. 8 to 10, and hoop iron at from £9 10s. to £10. Fencing wire was in rather better request at £11 10s. to £12 10s.

At date there are not many largo contracts falling to tho lot of the bridge and roofing and constructive engineers. In fact, some of them complain that trade has not been so quiet for twelve years. Others, however, are fully busy, some of them upon contracts lately booked. Recent work includes market and station roofs, river bridgework, and internal ironwork for new warehouse erections. One station roof being built in the Darlaston district runs to nearly 2000 tons of iron. That confidence of constructive engineering business is evidenced by the extensions and new works that are here and there in hand. At James Bridge a new and extensive roofing and bridge works is rapidly approaching completion, and has been erected by Messrs, llubery Brothers, galvanisers. The Indian States Railway contracts, which are just now about, and which used to afford a large amount of work to important firms in this district, are on this occasion likely to prove of less value than usual to South Staffordshire engineers, consequent upon the increased competition from other parts of the kingdom.

The reports which emanate from some other parts of the kingdom of slackness in the electric engine and machinery industry find no echo in the accounts of current trade rendered by Elwell and Parker, Wolverhampton, formerly the Wolverhampton Electric Lighting, Storage, and Engineering Company. This firm have more work in all their departments than they can get through, and prospects are excellent. Amongst the engines they are now producing is one of 200 nominal horse-power, or 400 indicated horsepower, for use at their own establishment. One of the needs for which it will be employed is heavy testing.

The demand for railway fastenings continues depressed, and makers of these goods are only quietly engaged. Coach and carriage and wagon bolts and nuts, engineers’ bright bolts, and other lighter bolts, are, however, selling fairly well. The Colonies figure at date amongst the export buyers. In the Darlaston district some work of this class is now in hand which is intended for torpedo construction.

The Birmingham Chamber of Commerce have decided to subscribe to the newly-formed British Commercial Geographical Society.

A meeting of manufacturers held in Birmingham last week, unanimously resolved to support the Birmingham Compressed Air Power Company in its efforts to supply the town with compressed air for motive purposes. During the meeting many interesting facts relating to the new motive power were adduced. Mr. Arthur H. Chamberlain, who presided, said the only waste product they would have in the use of compressed air would be pure air, whereas from a gas engine they got a mixture which was anything but pure ; from steam boilers there were ashes and clinkers besides smoke. Besides, they would be saved from boiler explosions, and the anxiety they felt regarding these boilers. Professor Henry Robinson intimated that compressed air could be turned into steam engines and that was the root of the whole matter so far as Birmingham was concerned. There was little fear that the pipes would burst, yet in the event of a fracture in a main occurring provision could be made against the stoppage of the supply to the district by the action of automatic valves at short intervals, which would confine the effect to the immediate locality in which it occurred. Mr. Andrew Lupton states that twenty years ago he had erected in a mine a 20-horse power engine fitted with the compressed air apparatus. It was working to this day, and now they had 100-horse power altogether at the same colliery transmitting power in a like manner. Since then, however, he had designed air compressing apparatus on a much larger scale. The largest engine he had designed was 100-horse power. Compressed air could be carried to the remotest part of a factory without any loss of power. These advantages should gain for the new power many adherents in such a town as Birmingham, which depends so largely upon the multiplicity of its industries.

Messrs. Strauss and Co., metal merchants, of London, sued last week in the Queen’s Bench Division the well-known Muntz’s Metal Company, Birmingham, for damages for breach of contract. In November the company contracted with Messrs. Strauss for the

pply of 100 tons of best selected copper, the deliveries to extend into December. No complaint was made until 25 tons forming the last but one lot was sent. The company then alleged that the metal was inferior, and subsequently returned 60 tons, which was re-sold by the plaintiffs at a loss. The contention by the company was that Lot A ingots did not answer to best selected copper; but

the plaintiffs alleged that it did. The jury found in Messrs. Strauss’ favour, and the damages were assessed at £403.

In the North Staffordshire iron trade prospects for the New Year are decidedly discouraging. Only a few firms have booked orders beyond February, and the inquiries to hand are not good. At most of the works it has this month been found impossible to keep the mills on with anything like regularity, while others have not been able to operate more than half time. Bar makers continue the best off. Crown bars are £7 to £7 10s. and inferior sorts are about £5 15s. Fair inquiries are being booked for tank and girder plates. The pig iron makers complain of the lack of demand, and the colliery owners are only doing a moderate business.

NOTES FROM LANCASHIRE.

(From our own Correspondent.)

Manchester.—Business may now be said to be practically suspended until after the holidays. Here and there small orders have been given out during the past week for pressing requirements, but there haB been no buying of any weight. A few inquiries for long-forward delivery are reported, but these are only to a very limited extent, as in many cases consumers have not yet been able to take their deliveries of iron already bought, and with iron still to come in which will cover their probable requirements over the first two or three months of ’next year, they are indifferent about entering into further contracts at present. The basis on which business is at all possible just now is so extremely low that it is a question whether prices could be got which would cover the actual cost of production, and many of the leading makers are declining to entertain business at all at the low offers for long-forward delivery which arc put forward by buyers when they are disposed to give out orders. Lancashire pig iron makers are even asking an advance of Is. to Is. Od. per ton upon current rates for anything like extended delivery into next year, and the average present quoted prices for local and district brands delivered equal to Manchester remain at about 41s. for forge and 41s. fid. to 42s. for foundry, less 2A per which could be Bought readily for delivery equal to Manchester well over next year at about 40s. for forge and 40s. 6d. for foundry qualities, less 2A per cent. In outside brands there is some underselling, but this chiefly amongst dealers or holders of second-hand lots who are prepared to come below late rates to effect sales, the makers of Scotch and Middlesbrough iron in most cases still holding pretty firmly to their prices. The manufactured iron trade continues very quiet, with prices practically unchanged, ordinary qualities of bars being obtainable at £5 10s. to £5 11s. 3d., local made hoops at about £6, and Lancashire sheets at about £7 per ton delivered into the Manchester district.

The condition of the engineering trades remains much the same as last reported, except that there is the usual extra quieting down with the close of the year, and at many works hands are being suspended in anticipation of the stoppages for the holidays, which in some cases are likely to extend over more than the customary period.

I have recently referred to the rather despondent tone with regard to the future put forward in the reports of the leading engineering trades’ union societies, and this is still further set forth in the annual report of the Manchester and Salford Trades’ Council, who state that they cannot say much for the prospects of trade during the coming year ; the outlook they do not regard as a bright one, and although they hope it may be better than they anticipate, they are inclined to think that the present depressed condition of trade will continue for some time longer. With regard to State-aided emigration, the report is very deoisive in not recommending the sending out of skilled artisans to the colonies. According to letters received from workmen who have gone out, they have every proof that trade in the colonies is in a very depressed condition, but they urge that there is every reason to send out agricultural labourers and those connected with farming pursuits, owing to the fact that large numbers of this class finding their way into the large towns here, by increasing the already overstocked market of unskilled labour, tend in turn to injuriously affect the skilled workmen as well. This, of course, may be disinterested advice, but it comes in rather questionable shape.

The recent visit of the Secretary of State for War—the Marquis of Hartington—to the works of Sir Joseph Whitworth and Co., of Manchester, naturally encourages the supposition that some of the orders for war materials necessary in connection with armaments needed for the increased naval requirements may find their way into this district. Sir Joseph Whitworth and Co. already supply very largely the material for the guns built by SirWm. Armstrong and Co. for the Government, as will have been seen by brief paragraphs occasionally appearing in my “Notes,” and I have at times given short descriptions of the extensions which have been carried out at the large ironworks at Openshaw, which will show that they amply equipped for undertaking direct work from the Government in the construction and finishing of any weight of ordnance that may be required.

It may now be considered that there are practically two schemes definitely put forward for the improvement of the waterway between Manchester and Liverpool for the transit of goods. The Manchester Ship Canal scheme has already been pretty fully described, and brief details of the proposed improvement of the Mersey and Irwell navigation were also recently given in the columns of The Engineer. The latter scheme, which it is estimated will cost £324,000, has now been approved by the shareholders of the Bridgewater Navigation Company. As it is scarcely probable that both of these projects will be carried out, it remains to be seen which of the two schemes will commend itself as the most feasible for securing an adequate means of water carriage between Manchester and the sea for the important trade of the district.

In the coal trade, although there is still a generally very quiet tone for the time of the year, there has been rather more doing In house fire coals, the recent severe

to increase the output. Steel cannot be said to have appreciably increased in demand, but makers of rails and merchant qualities have now more work in hand than they have had for months past. About half the production consists of mild and hard steel, which, I learn, is being largely produced at Barrow. Shipbuilding, after a long period of stagnation, or next to it, is looking up, several orders for new steamers having lately been received. Iron ore has a firmer tone, but is still quoted at 8s. 3d. to 8s. 6d. per ton net at mines. Manufacturing coal is in restricted demand, with a tendency to diminish in value, while domestic qualities have a larger consumption, with prices tending upwards. Shipping improved.

THE SHEFFIELD DISTRICT.

(From our own Correspondent.)

A PLEASANT item of news is the announcement that the dispute between the Barrow Hematite Steel and Iron Company and its employes at Worsbro’ Park, near Barnsley, is now certain to be satisfactorily settled. There are three different seams of coal at Worsbro’ Park, and during the summer the company found it undesirable to continue operations in the Thorncliffe seam. It was anxious, however, not to discharge any of its men, and formulated a scheme with the view of carrying on the work. No arrangement was effected, and early in September the men engaged in the Thorncliffe seam turned out, and with them those employed in the other two seams. After the strike had lasted ten weeks, the non-union men employed by the company returned to their work, to the great annoyance of the unionists. As the non-unionists were returning home on the 27th of November an attack was made upon them by men and women, and several were injured. Sixteen men are at present under remand, charged with participating in the attack. The directors were, perhaps, less disposed than ever to give way, non-union men were gradually filling the vacant places in the pits, and the union men, seeing defeat impending, wisely entertained the idea of a settlement. This was come to at Sheffield on the 19th inst. The company was represented by its managing director—Mr. Smith—Mr. Dale—Darlington, one of the directors—and Mr. Kellett, the manager of the collieries. A deputation of the men was introduced by Mr. B. Pickard, the secretary of the Yorkshire Miners’ Association. The interview, which lasted three hours, terminated in the men accepting the company’s terms, and agreeing to go back to work, the manager promising to find places for as many of them as possible.

The Barrow difficulty is out of the way, and the Denaby Main dispute takes its place. Here the hands, some 1200 men and boys, have received a fortnight’s notice. The men state that the revision of prices proposed would mean a reduction of from 40 to 50 per cent, to some of them, and of 30 per cent, to others; but these figures are probably an exaggeration. The colliers are very determined in their resolution not to accede to the masters’ desires; but as a further interview is to take place with the manager, probably some arrangement may be come to, and the year close without any serious disturbance in the South Yorkshire coal field, which has been singularly free from disagreement during 1884.

The coal taken by rail to the London district from 1st January to 30th November is stated at 6,200,000 tons, making, with that sent by sea, a total of 10,000,000 tons. Compared with the corresponding eleven months of 1883, this is a decrease in the coal sent by railway to the extent of 210,000 tons, though sea-borne coal has increased by 160,000 tons—making a net decrease of 50,000 tons. Silkstone, in the best quality, has averaged in London during 1884 21s. 7d. per ton, or Is. 3d. per ton less in realised value than in 1883. The general falling off in the rail wav -borne coal—which is chiefly house coal—is owing to the mild winters and the warm summer, and particularly to the dry, warm weather which prevailed in the autumn. The coal used for and steam purposes comes by sea. Shipping freights have been very low, but the railway companies still impose the heavy tariffs for conveying Yorkshire coal to London. The cost of carriage by from the Tyne is less than half the cost from Yorkshire by rail. It is satisfactory to note, though there has been a falling-off in the railway-borne coal to London of 210,000 tons, that our local firm, Messrs. Newton, Chambers, and Co., of Thorncliffe Collieries, have increased their tonnage by 9543 tons, having sent during the eleven months of 1884 no less than 249,202 tons.

A local engineering firm is understood to have booked a very heavy order for plant for manufacturing heavy ordnance. This is intended for the Spanish Government, who had several officials here some time ago inspecting the productive powers of our local firms. The inspection ended in the foreign representatives deciding to purchase machinery in England for the manufacture in Spain of such guns as they should require. Spain has already established iron and steel works, which have the advantage of being near to the famous hematite ore mines of the Bilbao mountains. A Sheffield company is believed to contemplate laying down a heavy plant for a similar purpose. Local enterprise is being vigorously developed to meet all the possible requirements of our Government, the different firms stating decisively that they have never yet been called upon to produce a piece of steel which they have not succeeded in supplying.

Trade durinir 1884 Dears out, with one or two exceptions—such lway rolling stock—what Sir John Brown, January 7th, predicted. He regarded

blades

w almost equally flat owing to uncertainty in regard to the . A revival of business with the States is expected in 1885, th. An improved business

THE NORTH OF ENGLAND.

(From our own Correspondent.)

The Cleveland pig iron trade is in an almost lifeless condition, and it is not likely to recover until the new year has fairly commenced. Merchants are still offering No. 3 g.m.b. at 35s. 6d. to 35s. 9d. per ton for early delivery, and at 36s. for delivery over the first half of next year. Makers, however, hold the bulk of the iron disposable in their own hands, and are not inclined

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Railway Accident.—An accident occurred on the South Devon section of the Great Western Railway on Saturday morning, and although no serious damage was done, a signalman has been suspended from duty. A pilot engine from Totnes Station had assisted a fast goods train to Kattery, and was waiting on the down line for the signal to return to Totnes, when the ordinary passenger train which leaves Exeter at 7 a.m. was seen approaching, and before it could be stopped had run into the pilot engine. The passengers received a severe shaking from the collision, some of them being bruised and cut by being th off their seats.

The Commercial Advance of the Edison SYSTEM.—The report of the trustees of the Edison Electric Light Company for the year ending September 30th is in print, and says the past year has been an important one in the way of progress, and especially in tho readjustment of relations which had grown out of the past. One item of consequence was the arrangement mado with the Isolated Company, regarding exploiting work, whereby the annual expenses of the Edison Company aro reduced from about 100,000 dols. to 25,000 dols., exclusive of unusual legal or other expenses. The Edison Company has a proprietary interest of 51 per cent, in the capital of the Isolated Company. The profits of the latter were 35,000 dols. the first six months of 1884, and are estimated the same to December 31st, making 70,000 dols. for the year, which is equal to nearly 10 per cent, on the stock. This amount is needed to make up the company’s deficit. There is greater promise of income from local and licensed lighting companies. There are eighteen of these companies having central stations, three being in Massachusetts, at Brockton, Lawrence and Fall River. The licensed company in New York earned a profit of 10,429'4fidols. in the first quarter of 1884, a profit of 7251'57 dols. the second quarter, 3873'4fi dols. the third quarter, and an estimated profit for the fourth quarter of DUOO dols. The net loss in 1883 was 4457'50 dols. The capital of the New York company is 1,000,000 dols., and its capacity 13,000 lamps. The Brockton Company earned (>(>34 T9 dols. during the fiscal year, which was 380'29dols. less than the expenses. Its capital is 100,000 dols., and it has 2090 lamps, with capacity for 3200. Statistics of the Lawrence Company are deficient, but it appears to have increased its lamps from 1461 to 2440, to have earned WALES & ADJOINING COUNTIES nearIy 1100 dols. in September, with expenses „    _    ,    * 700 dols. to 800 dols. The treasurer says he is

( rorn our own Correspondent.)    confident of making 4 per cent, the last six

Colonel Shakespeare has written to the months of 1884. The capital is 65,000 dols. and Times advocating the disuse of anthracite coal capacity 3200 lamps. The capital of the Edison for household purposes—and there is a good deal parent company is unchanged, being 1,080,000 of truth in what he says as to tho exclusive use; dols., of which 553,517'60dols. is paid for in cash, but to avoid smoke it is the only coal that is 347,450 dols. is assured to T. A. Edison for available. The worthy Colonel—who is interested patents, leaving 179,033 dols. in the treasury in the Welsh steam coal-field, and in the anthra- due Mr. Edison, &c. The balance sheet shows cite, or semi-anthracite, district too—complains the book debits and credits to be 1,720,34G'32 of the intense heat given out by the anthracite dols. The credits, consisting of 900,967'60 dols. coal, and its evil influence on bars and grates, as capital stock paid in, 761,108'14 dols. in licences 11 as health. He should try a compromise, fromsub companies, 43,654'92 dols. dividends and and one that is effectual—a lessened draught by royalties collected and 14,615'66 dols. in accounts a sieve plate” at bottom, then a fire made up with payable. The stock of the Edison Company is large steam coal banked with small bituminous, now 40 bid, 75 asked.—The Electrical World.

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THE PATENT JOURNAL.

16,565. Preserving the Frf,.sunf.ss of Animal, Ac., Substances, B. H. Tliwaitc, Birkenlioad.

Ac., Lamps, J. Lucas, Bir-

to reduce their prices. They have in certain cases sold at 30s. 3d. for delivery over the first quarter, and that is the lowest they are prepared to take for the present. For delivery to the end of June they ask 3d. to fid. per ton more, but consumers show no disposition to buy ahead. Forge iron can now be had at 34s. per ton. The supply has been greater lately, and the finished ironworks are taking less, hence the falling off in price.

There is no sale for warrants at the quoted price of 35s. 9d. and 3fis. per ton.

The stock of Cleveland pig iron in Messrs. Connal and Co.’s store at Middlesbrough has not altered during the last few days.

Exports of pig iron have proceeded at only a moderate rate this month. A fair quantity has been sent to Scotland, but very little seems to be required for the Continent. Up to the 18th inst. the shipments were 40,047 tons, as against 55,158 tons in the corresponding number of days in November.

Very little is being done in the finished iron trade, most of the works being closed until after the holidays. Such orders as have been given out have been at the rates ruling for some months past. Good specifications of girder or ship plates can be placed at £5 per ton, whilst for small lets 2s. fid. more is asked; angles are £4 15s. to £4 17s. fid., and bar iron £5 2s. fid. to £5 5s.—all free on trucks at makers’ works less 2| per cent.

Meetings were held last week by shipbuilders on the Tyne, Tees, Wear, at Hartlepool, and Whitby, to consider the advisability of giving notice of a further reduction in wages. The men have been reduced 174 Per cent. during the last ten months, and are naturally strongly opposed to any further reduction.

The outlook in the shipbuilding trade is certainly better for the New Year. Several orders for new vessels have been given out lately. On the Tyne alone about a dozen have been placed. Messrs. Andrew Leslie and Co., of Hebburn, have received orders for two large vessels, and Messrs. Dobson and Co., of Low Walker, for one. It is also said that Messrs. Palmer’s, of Jarrow, have secured some orders. The new shipyard of Messrs. Skinner and Wood, at Bill Quay, is to be opened shortly. Some orders for marine engines have been given out, and more hands have been set on at several of the marine engine works.

Messrs. Gray and Co., of Hartlepool, have built eleven vessels during the year 1884, having an aggregate tonnage of 17,454. Last year they launched twenty-one vessels, of 37,598 tons capacity. Messrs. E. Withy and Co. have built seven ships, equivalent to 10,344 tons. Last year their tonnage was 21,199. Messrs. Irvine and Co. have built three vessels, amounting to 3175 tons, as against a tonnage of 82(19 last year. At Middlesbrough Messrs. R. Dixon and Co. have built twelve vessels, of (5731 tons, as compared with 30,720 tons in 1883. Messrs. Craggs and Sons have turned out two steamers, with a tonnage of 246C, as against four vessels last year, with a capacity of 4781 tons.

The progress of triple expansion becomes daily more certain and more marked. Almost all the inquiries lately received by marine engineers have been for this class of engine. The various makers at the North-Eastern seaport towns have been giving special attention to the subject, and perfecting types having each certain advantages or peculiarities of detail. Messrs. T. Richardson and Sons, of Hartlepool, for instance, claim to bo able to produce a triple engine which requires greater length of engine-room than would an ordinary compound engine of equal power. To achieve this the three cylinders are placed close together in a line, each over its own crank. The slide chests are placed side by side tho starting platform, and the slides are worked by a special arrangement somewhat resembling Hackworth’s gear. Messrs. Blair and Co., of Stockton, have adopted the plan of simply adding an additional cylinder to their ordinary compound engine, the bed-plate below being prolonged proportionately, and another crank added to the shaft. Messrs. Westgarth, English, and Co., Middlesbrough, have also decided upon adopting the last-named arrangement. The construction of the three-throw crank shafts of large dimensions now needed for marino engines is a matter which demands fresh consi-It is obvious that they would be very costly if mado in one pieco; and it would be essential in most cases to carry a spare one for use in case of breakage. To avoid, or rather to minimise this liability, built-up shafts aro coming more and into favour. In some cases the entire crank, with its two cheeks and crank pin, is made steel casting, which is shrunk on to the ends of the shaft proper, thus uniting them into one. In other cases the cranks are made separate, and shrunk on to the crank pin as well as on to the shaft itself. In the case of a built-up shaft it is obvious that a portion only, say a crank, a crank pin, and one intermediate length, need be taken to sea as spare parts. To facilitate partial renewals at sea or in foreign ports, where convenience for shrinking or unshrinking might not be forthcoming, a plan has been devised whereby the intermediate lengths of shafting are finished with solid flanged ends, which are let into corresponding 'recesses turned in the outer surface of each crank cheek. A series of bolts, with countersunk heads on the outsides and partially recessed, nuts on the insides .of the cranks, secure the latter to the intermediate shafting. The countersunk heads permit the bearings to be brought close to the cranks. By this arrangement a new crank, taken as a duplicate, can be substituted for a broken one without any appliance or skill other than are to be found in any engine-room. The best results which have yet been obtained from triple expansion engines are equivalent to a consumption of a trifle below 1*5 lb. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour, which may be considered to be a saving of 15 per cent, over the best type of ordinary compound engines now in use. Joy’_ valve gear seems to be steadily making its way, and, indeed, it seems not unlikely to supersede altogether the combination of excentrics and links which, as a valve gear, have hitherto been considered incapable of improvement. Mr. Joy s last triumph has been the adoption of his gear in the engines of H.M.S. Amphion, a fast cruiser just, turned out of Pembroke Dockyard, burcly if this ingenious gear can be trusted to do its work in such an important case, and if it has the confidence of such conservative, and even timid, authorities as those who regulate the construction of the engines of her Majesty’s ships, there must be a wide field for the adoption of it by steam engine users generally. Having long been a resident in the Cleveland district, Mr. Joy is heartily congratulated, and his long deferred success is much rejoiced in by his old friends in the North.

NOTES FROM SCOTLAND.

(From our own Correspondent.)

The Scotch iron trade in the past year has, in some respects, turned out better than could have been anticipated. At the commencement of the year there was an almost complete collapse in a number of departments of manufacture upon which the iron industry is very largely dependent, and in those circumstances the amount of business done has been very considerable. Taking the average of years, too, the present year is by no means among the worst, except in the matter of prices, which have been lower than usual. The shipments of Scotch pigs coastwise and abroad show a falling off amounting to 100,000 tons. Of that quantity about 95,000 is due to a decline in the exports. The United States and Canada have taken 54,000 tons less of our iron than they did in 1883, while 20,000 less was sent to Italy, and 10,000 less to France. There is a small reduction in the stock of pig iron in Messrs. Connal and Co.’s stores, compared with that at Christmas last year. The speculation prices in the warrant market have fluctuated between 44s. 104d. and 40s. 10d., the latter being the lowest figure quoted for a series of years. Makers’ iron was also lower than in 1883, although the prices of the special brands were relatively much better than those of warrants.

In the past week the market has been quiet. There was a slightly firmer tone a few days ago, but a very small business took place. "Warrants were quoted on Friday at 42s. cash. On Monday transactions occurred at 42s. 3d. to 42s. 44d. and 42s. 4d. cash. The market was somewhat firmer on Tuesday, with business at 42s. 4|d. to 42s. 6d. cash.

The restricted demand for makers’ iron has led to a further slight reduction in prices, which are as follow:—Gartsherrie, f.o.b. at Glasgow, per ton, No. 1, 52s. 9d.; No. 3,47s. 9d.; Coltness, 57s. and 51s. 9d.; Langloan, 57s. fid. and 52s. fid.; Sum-merlee, 57s. fid. and 47s. 3d.; Calder, 53s. Gd. and 48s.; Carnbroe, 50s. and 47s.; Clyde, 47s. Gd. and 44s.; Monkland, 44s. and 41s. 3d ; Quarter, 43s. and 40s. 9d.; Govan, at Broomielaw, 43s. 3d. and 41s.; Shotts, at Leith, 53s. Gd. and 52s.; Carron, at Grangemouth, 49s. (specially selected, 53s. Gd.) and 48s.; Kinncil, at Bo’ness, 44s. Gd. and 43s. Gd.; Glengarnock, at Ardrossan, 49s. and 43s. 3d.; Eglinton, 44s. and 41s. 3d.; Dalmelling-ton, 48s. Gd. and 44s.

The year’s business in malleable iron and general iron and steel manufactures has been very considerable. It appears from the official returns of the shipbuilding trade that the quantity of mild steel employed in the construction of vessels has been quite as large as last year, in proportion to the whole tonnage launched. For a variety of other purposes, too, steel is in growing request. The prices are now in many cases not much above those of iron, and the greater lightness and durability of the material are fast giving it the preference over iron. The value of the iron manufactures despatched abroad from Glasgow in the course of the year exceeds £3,000,000, and is within several hundred thousand pounds of that of last year. As the prices are now so much smaller, the figures argue that the shipments have been quite as large as they were in 1884. They include large numbers of locomotives sent to India and Australia, and an enormous amount of sugar crushing plant sent to the plantations in different parts of the world, besides much railway material, pipes, sewing machines, and other articles. There has been a very marked reduction in the quotations of malleable iron during the year.

The coal trade is quiet, and prices are difficult to maintain. Tho shipments from the whole of the Scotch ports for the twelve months amount in round figures to 3,250,000 tons, showing a reduction as compared with last year of about 245,000 tons. This is not a great difference considering the depressed condition of trade. There has, however, been a marked diminution in the domestic consumption, both in households and in factories.

At a meeting of the Mining Institute of Scotland a few evenings ago at Hamilton, Mr. Robert T. Moore read an interesting paper descriptive of some collieries in Saxony, and the chaiiman, Mr. Jas. Smith, afterwards noticing the existence of a mining academy in that country, said that this was a great want in Scotland, and a point on which they might well imitate the Germans. Mr. Ralph Moore exhibited a Pennsylvania blasting tube, in which the hollow tube was inserted in place of the usual needle, while it is stemmed round about, and on a squib being put into the mouth of the tube, the charge explodes at A paper was also read by Mr. David Hamilton “ Goal Mining in Pennsylvania,” the discussion on which was adjourned.

The new shipping launched from the Clyde shipyards this year measures 299,000 gross tonnage compared with 418,000 tons last year.

This makes one of the most lasting of fires, and with little smoke. There are two kinds of anthracite coal in the market, one such as the 4ft. steam—the Cyfarthfa, Merthyr Vale, Harris Navigation coals —and the anthracite of West Glamorgan, which is in favour by maltsters; but this latter coal no London housemaid would try to light.

The coal trade is still bad. In one district I hear of three turns a week, in another of only two. The ironworks districts, the Rhondda, and a good part of Tredegar and neighbourhood, are all suffering more or less. The chief sufferers those doing a foreign trade; so there is this curious medley of things, that in one valley a colliery is full of work, and in another, a few miles off, colliers are almost idle.

Taking the whole of the collieries, the export foreign from Cardiff was a little better last week, totalling over, instead of under, the 10,000 tons. So far the prospects are fair for a total of million tons of coals exported from Cardilf during the year 1884 to foreign destinations. This will only show a small margin, comparatively, over 1883. The year opened well, and there were sanguine hopes that a much larger total would have been reached; but the last quarter has been a bad one.

Taking coastwise and bunker coals, we shall total nine million tons for the present year’s shipments at Cardiff; and, in the face of all grumblers, this must be allowed to be a respect able trade.

There has been a complaint at Newport and Swansea of decreased trade—rather unusually so, as the rule is a pressure for despatch previous to the Christmas holidays.

Mr. Bedlington and others have been named by the coalowners to inspect Ynyshir Colliery, the place selected for the test shot firing experiments.

The colliers at Trecynon have agreed to join the Miners’ Provident Fund. I am glad to see this society making such good headway.

The 1st of January is named for the connection between Castle Pit, Cyfarthfa, and the new line to Quaker’s Yard to lie opened. I hear of the possible proprietorship of a neighbouring railway by the Taff. The destiny of the Taff is to swallow up the smaller lines, and with its great docks there will be good scope for the unquestioned vigour of its administration, with the addition of Mr. W. T. Lewis to the directorate.

The Davies Scot Company, coalowners and coke manufacturers, has been registered, and will be one of the largest in the Principality. Mr. Davies, Llandinaur — Ocean—D. Cooper Scott, E. S. Hett, Frazer, and Riches, Cardiff, are the principals. Capital £400,000, in £100 shares.

The iron and steel works are moving better. I note more promise at Dowlais; but for the next week it will be a case of silent mills and repairs in most of the works.

Tin-plate is quiet, but prices firm. Makers are rigid at 14s. and 14s. 3d.

The Machcn Company, with collieries, &c., has been started under capital auspices.

rown

ondensed from the Journal of the Commissioners oi Patents.

"** It has come to our notice that some applicants of the Patent-office Sales Department, for Patent Specifications, have caused much unnecessary trouble and annoyance, both to themselves and to the Patent-office Officials, by giving the number of the page of The Engineer at which the Specification they require is referred to, instead of giving the proper number of the Specification. The mistake has been made by looking at The Engineer Index, and giving the numbers there found, which only refer to the pages, in place of turning to those pages arid tinding the numbers of the Specification.

Applications for Letters Patent.

*** When patents have been “ communicated,” the name and address of the communicating party are printed in italics.

MHh December, 1884.

1C,493. Rolling Old Rails into Flat Plates, 8. W. Smith, Coventry.

10.494.    Boots and Shoes, L. O. Michael, Birmingham.

10.495.    Metallic Bedsteads, C. iloason, Birmingham. 10,490. Handles for Bicycles, Ac., 8. Martin, Birmingham.

16.497.    Stuffing Beds, C. Fell, Manchester.

10.498.    Portable Electric Lamps, A. V. and O. F. Rose, London.

10.499.    Cravats, P. Ford and O. Sclniltze.—(A.

Kiehnle, Pforzheim.)

16.500.    Separating Metallic Substances from Grain, J. Clayton, Manchester.

16.501.    Spring Sugar-tongs, J. J. Rugg and A. W. Turner, Birmingham.

10.602.    Differential Pulleys, G. Dillingham, Rochdale.

16.603.    Hope-driving Gear, J. Wainwriglit and G. 11. Richmond, Manchester.

16,504. Preventing tlio Rattling of Windows, II. Smith, Coventry.

16,605. Making Screw-iiooks, Ac., E. Phillqs, Birmingham.

16,500. Knife and Fork Rest, J. Clark, Glasgow.

10.507.    Electrical Gas-pressure Alarm, 11. W, Bishop, Tamworth.

10.508.    Fulling, Ac., Machinery, M. and T. Kirby,

lAieds.

10.609. Lever for Openiko Swells of Groans, A. M. Richardson, Groat Malvern.

10,510. Machines for Heeling Boots, I¹'. G. Myers, Northampton.

16,611. Rolls for Grinding Corn, F. G. Myers undo. Mobbs, Northampton.

10.512.    Supplyino Lamps with Oil, J. Millard and T, W. Arthur, Dublin.

16.513.    Obtaining Motive Power, W. Rocklilfu, Sun-derland.

6,514. Purifying Sewage, P. Smith and It. Wild, Manchester.

15 515. Weighino Spoon, N. Stevenson, London.

15.516.    Skates, W. P. Thompson.—(C. M. and J. Thomson, Canada.)

16.517.    Copyino Paper, &c., F. ltust, Liverpool.

16,618. Making Axle Grease, M. W. Hydes and J. Ii.

Williams, Liverpool.

16.519.    Transferring Printing, A. Hcntschel and J. V. E. Taylor.—(A. L. Damkiihlcrs, Berlin, and C. Weber, Berlin.)

16.520.    Timepieces, G. C. Rico, London.

16,621. Refrigerating, N. W. Condiet, jun., und T. Rose, London.

16.522.    Lanterns, Ac., C. J. Davis and T. C. J. Thomas, London.

16.523.    Fire-grates, R. Holmes, London.

16.524.    Employing Water as an Auxiliary Fuel, It. M. Marchant, London.

16.525.    Steam Engines, It. M. Marchant, London.

'to,526. Latch-bolts and Latches, F. J. Diggs, London.

16.527. Lockino tho Nuts of Screw Bolts, A. Emloy and J. D. Morrison, London.

16.628.    Buttons, F. Dovonoy, Glasgow.

16.629.    Safety Axle, J. Hands and W. H. Sj ooner, Bii mingham.

16,530. Folding Steps, W. J. Gwynn, Birmingham. 16)531. Weldless Chain, G. AUau and H. M. Gregory, Corngreaves.

16)532. Si’innino and Doubling Cotton, Ac., R. Clegg, Manchester.

16,533. Compound Engines, II. E. Newton.—(C. C. Worthington, U.S.)

16)534. Withdrawing Water from Steam Cylinders, H. E. Newton.—(C. C. Worthington, U.S.)

16.535.    Saddles for Bicycles, Ac., W. G. Ashford, W. J. Winder, and C. H. Freeman, London.

16.536.    Carryino Cash Parcei.s, A. J. Boult.— (A/. dark, U.S.)

16.537.    Hoop Fasteners, N. Newman, London.

16.538.    Soldering Irons, A. F. Zimmer ling, J. J. Knoeppcl, and A. C. Pauly, London.

16.539.    Disinfecting Bags, S. W. Parker and II. Blackman, London.

16.540.    Beating Apparatus, A. J. Boult.—(A. E. Gold, U.S.)

16.541.    Accordeons, II. J. Iladdan.—(A. A. Klepzig,

Leipzig.)

16.542.    Cravats, II. J. Haddan.—( W. F. Frey, Pforzheim.)

16.543.    Warp Lace Machines, J. Hudson and J. Jardinc, London.

16.544.    Toasting Fork, F. M. B. Bertram, London.

16.545.    Finishing Metal Castings, W. It. Lake.—(8. Johnston, U.S.)

16.546.    Indicating Time, W. R. Lakc.-(J. Lirulauer, U.S.)

16.547.    Forming Sheet Metal Tubes, E. Jordan, New York.

16.548.    Tricycles, D. Craig, London.

16.549.    Chenille, J. Hood, London.

16.650.    Crushing, Ac., Machines, P. Jensen.—(G. V. Jieumcrt, Copenhagen.)

16.651.    Charging Syphons with Beer, P. Jensen.— (F. Hcymann, Copenhagen.)

16.552.    Boxes for Transmitting by Post, W. B. Chalmers, London.

16.553.    Bose Couplings, E. Nunan, London.

16.554.    Electrolytical Separation of Metals, A. M. Clark.—(B. Moebius, Mexico.)

16.555.    Refrigerators, A. M. Clark.—(II. von /loin, Stuttgart.)

16.556.    Refrigerating Apparatus, S. Titt.—(A. P. Pictet, Geneva.)

16.557.    Volatile Liquids, 8. Pitt.—(A. P. Pictet,

Geneva.)

16.558.    Refrigerating Apparatus, S. Pitt.—(A. P. Pictet, Geneva.)

16.559.    Gratings for Sewers, Ac., C. A. Hutchings, London.

16.560.    Engines actuated by the Explosion of a mixture of Gas, E. Edwaids.—(A. A. de Coster, Brussels )

16.561.    Steam Boilers, H. Turner, London.

16.562.    Boots, G. W. Spence, London.

16,603. Mechanical Toy, G. F. Luttickc, London. 16,564. Mechanical Toy, G. F. Luttickc, London.

l~th December, 1S84.

16.566.    Velocipede, mingham.

16.567.    Brushes for Dynamo-electric Machines, G. Hookham, Birmingham.

16.568.    Registering tho Supfly of Compressed Air, J. Sturgeon, London.

16.569.    Traps for Rats, Ac., J. Lei per, Rhyddlan.

16.570.    Clocks and Watches, E. H. Waldenstrom, Man-cheater.

16.571.    Oil Cans, Ac,, C. Phillips,' Aston,

16.572.    Application to tho Cranks and Pedals of Velocipedes to Render the Throw Instantaneously Adjustable, C. J. 8. Eiffe, Walthamstow.

16.573.    Lifting Machines, &c., G. C. Marks, Hands-worth.

16.574.    Metallic Meshes for Bedsteads, &c., W. P. Hoskins, Birmingham.

16.575.    Operating tho Dabbing Brush of Noble’s Combing Machines, A. Muff, Halifax.

16.576.    Boats, G. Dean, Oxford.

16.577.    Ball Taps, H. Sutcliffe, Halifax.

16.578.    Speed or Driving Gear for Bicycles, &c., N. Frost, Macclesfield.

16.579.    Folding-up Kneeling Forms, &c., J. Oddy, Leeds.

16.580.    Match and other Boxes, T. Snowball, New-castle-on-Tyne.

16.581.    Fish-plates and CnAiR for Fastening Railway Metals, E. P. Burd, Okcton.

16.582.    Cooking, Ac., Apparatus, Dr. F. Stolzoand E. Morgenroth, London.

16.583.    Covering Cigar Points with Tobacco Leaf, T. Ibbetson and E. H. Anderton, Sheffield.

16.584.    Slicing Bread, &c., W. R. Lake.—(F. G. Gale, Canada.)

16.585.    Securing Stereotype Plates for Printing Machines, A. McCardle, London.

16.586.    Governors for Steam Engines, G. H. Rennie, London.

16.587.    Dismembrators, Borgmann <fc Schleo, Prussia.

16.588.    Covering Steam Boilers, &c., to Prevent Radiation of Heat, C. J. Dunn, London.

16.589.    Gearing for Force Pumps, A. F. Nagle, London.

16.590.    Checking, &c., Apparatus, J. Smith, G. Roebuck, and J. Hirst, London.

16.591.    Socket Spades and Shovels, J. Siddaway, London.

16.592.    Purifying Sewage, J. W. Slater and W. Stevens, London.

16.593.    Trimmino Edges of Paper-hangings, F. Mitchell and H. R. Townsond, London.

16.594.    Preventing Air Holes Forming in Metal ’ during Casting, J. Toussaint, London.

16.595.    Umbrellas, (fee., W. C. Edwards, London.

16.596.    Preventing Hop Leaves Passing Beer Kngineh, W. C. Edwards, London.

16,697. Roughing tho Leather Tips of Hilliard Cues when Worn Smooth, Ac., W. C. Edwards, London.

16.598.    Collecting tho Fermentation Scum of Beer, <fcc., W. C. Edwards, London.

16.599.    Railway Brakes, E. J. C. Welch and W. P. Smith, London.

16.600.    Closing or Stoppering Bottles, II. W. Stcvons, London.

16.601.    Steam and other Boilers, P. Dalton, London.

10.602.    Indicating Apparatus, G. II. and S. Jennings, and E. G. Brower, London.

16,003. NUTS for Screw Bolts, It. Harrington, London. 18</t December, 1884.

16.604.    Vacuum, Ac., Pressure Brakes, II. A. Iloy, London.

16.605.    Testing tho Strength of Flours and Wheats, W. Jago, Brighton.

16,600. Standard Scale for Testing tho Colour of Flour, W. Jago, Brighton.

16.607.    Obtaining, Ac., Motive Power, E. J. C. Fear, Bristol.

16.608.    Steam Generators for Preventing Priming, J. Johnson.— (J. A. Orme, Canada.)

10,009. Holding and Releasing Spring Roller Blinds, M. II. Itobottom, Liverpool.

16,010. Washing and Cleansing W. FI. Bennett, London.

10.611.    Producing Coloured Designs on India-rubber Fabrics, Ac., P. M. Matthow, jun., Edinburgh.

16.612.    Boot and Shoe Protectors, R. Ilildick, Birmingham.

16.613.    Displaying Posters and Advertisements, J. Pearson, Preston.

16.614.    Lock Washers for Nuts and Bolts, W. Sanderson and T. A. Moffitt, Birmingham.

16.615.    Pulley-blocks, W. Sanderson and T. A. Moffit, Birmingham.

16.616.    Preventing Undue Heating of Bearings, R. Powles, Liverpool.

16.617.    Letter and Name Plates Combined, C. T. Smith, Birmingham.

16.618.    Tinting and Colouring Process, J. M. Gillies, Dublin.

16.619.    Banjos, C. A. Witchell, Stroud.

16.620.    Shedding Motions for Looms, T. Richmond, H. Haworth, and D. Whitehead, London.

16.621.    Pressure Gauge, J. Murrie, Glasgow.

16.622.    Propelling Apparatus, T. Rowland,

16.603.    Corkscrews, J. K. Starley, London.

16.624.    Cleanino Sinks, T. McLean, London.

12.625.    Gloves, E. G. Coltman and T. Billson, London.

16.626.    Purifyino Fur, It. Robinson, London.

16.627.    Booth and Shoes, E. C. Hutchings, London.

16.628.    Lubricating Shafts, T. Itoisert, Augsburg.

16.629.    Discharging tho Water of Condensation from Steam Pipes, Ac., J. Johnson, London.

16.630.    Dressing, Shaping, Ac., Stone, F. H. J. Trier, London.

16.631.    Stencilling for Enamelled Iron, G. J. Rhodes, London.

16.632.    Electric Alarm Watch or Clock Stand, J. Rurmann, London.

16.633.    Washing Bottles, Ac., W. Seantlebury, Lower Clapton.

16.634.    Gas Engines, II. L. Milllcr, W. Adkins, and F. Amyos, London.

16.635.    Clocks, W. Rico, London.

16.636.    Acetic Acid, E. C. and F. M. Allan, London.

16.637.    Sluice Valves, E. Brower.-(J. Robert, Gilly.)

16.638.    Turning Christmas Treks, Ac., J. C. Eckardt, London.

16.639.    Incandescent Electric Apparatus, J. S. Williams, New Jersey.

16.640.    Incandescent Electric Apparatus, J. S. Williams, Now Jersey.

16.641.    Incandescent Electric Apparatus, J. S. Williams, Now Jersey.

16.642.    Incandescent Electric Lighting Apparatus, J. S. Williams, New Jersey.

16.643.    Combination Furniture, A. J. Boult.—(F. O. Boxhammer, Berlin.)

16.644.    Electric Communication between Lightships and the Shore, F. Lako, London.

16.645.    Roundabout, G. Matthews, London.

16.646.    Gas Meters, C. Miihlc, London.

16.647.    Hot-air Engines, W. R. Lake.—(Sociiti Knob and Cie., Luxemburg.)

16.648.    Combined Coffee Making, Boiling, and Heating Apparatus, A. F. Stone, London.

16.649.    Producing Ice, S. A. Varley and W. A. Gorman, London.

emptied, and of counterbalancing when full weighting tank or tanks when empty.

5976. Motive Power Engines, W. W. Tonkin, don.—31s< December, 18S3. Is.

A flat slide valve has a compound motion, compi of reciprocating motions in two directions, impa to it by an arrangement of cranks, levers, and links, whereby tho arrangement of the ports in the valvo and valve face is facilitated. Diaphragm pumps,

bination, with tho outer case, of an adjustable inner case carrying a dial, traverse wheels of different size, gearing, and indicating hands, substantially as specified. (3) In a board measure, the combination, with the outer case J, and tho latch L, of the inner case H, and its dial, the traverse wheels of different Bize, their pinions, the cog wheels B and C, and their hands,

operated by compressed air, are used to compress gas for use in gas engines. An injector, operated by compressed air, is used to introduce gas mixture to the firing port of a gas engine. Various other improvements are described, there being eighteen claims in the specification.

5980. Railway Rolling Stock and Wheel Tires, F. G. Brougham, London.—31st December, 1883.— {A communication from Gesellschaft fiir Werwerthung von Erjffndungenin Eisenbahnwcsen, Berlin.) Is.

The object is to secure the proper radial position of the axles of carriages or locomotives with two axles, and of the end axles when three are used; and it consists in making the wheel frames able to swing round the centre of the axle. The sections of the wheel tires suitably formed to givo a radial adjustment to tho

are

axles when running on curves.

5982. Generation, Storage, Distribution, Regulation, and Utilisation of Electricity, J. S. Williams, Riverton, N.J., U.S.—Slst December, 1883.

This chiefly relates to the utilisation of electrical power for the operation of movable torpedoes for coast defence or for marine operations. It also embraces a system for tho operation of railways, tram-other purposes.

through

FLOWER-rOTS, &c.,

London.

ABSTKAOTS OP SPECIFICATIONS.

Prepared by ourselves expressly for The Engineer at the office of Her Majesty’s Commissioners of Patents.

5956. Gas Engines, E. G. Wastfield, Liverpool.—31st December, 1883. 6d.

The engino has two or threo cylinders enclosed in one water jacket, and fitted with an intake of suchform that tho air is mado to pass through a passago surrounded by an annular space in connection with the gas supply, the air in its passage acting inductively on tho. gas; and also with an exhaust chamber, into which the products from the cylinder are conveyed, such chamber being fitted with grat ings and deflectors, which reduce the noise of tho exhaust.

5970. Compression of Crops for Ensilage, P.

. McIntyre, Carnarvon.—31st December, 1883.    6d.

Consists of a water or sand tank, or series of tanks, as a means of weighting down a silo in combination with smaller counterbalance tanks, filled with sand, water, or tho like, and capable of being filled or

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combined ejector and injector, substantially as shown. In a combined ejoctor and injector, the combination of the steam inlet A¹, valve H hX, ports E and F, water inlot B, ejoctor and injector tubes 1234, discharge outlet C, and overflow D, arranged opposite the steam inlet A¹, with ports, or their equivalent I J, all substantially as shown and described. A combined ejector and injector constructed, substantially as described, so that tho water always enters at the inlet B at the end of tho ejector, and the steam through the passage or port E of the ejector, whether the jets of steam and water bo solid or annular, and with a valve or valves to control tho supply of steam to the ejector and injector. 307,788. Cultivator, Hiram G. Messersmith, Wenona, III.—Filed February 29th, 1884.

Claim.—In a cultivator, a series of curved arms connected to tho beam thereof, and having their ends tapering or wedge shape, in combination with tho

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5983. Generation, Storage, Distribution, Regulation, and Utilisation of Electricity, ' J. S. Williams, Riverton, N.J., U.S.—31st December, 1883. 1*. 8d.

The waste heat evolved by tho combustion of fuel in tho decomposition of minerals, tho production of gas, Ac., is utilised to operate thermo-electric generators, tho currents from which may be used in a lamp circuit or stored in secondary battories.

5990. Manufacture of Lace, Ac., F. B. A. Biische, Germany.—31st December, 1883. Is. 2d.

Tho invention consists principally in ofTecting tho interlacement or crossing of tho threads in tho manufacture by machinery of laco, braids, and like fabrics, by tho aid of threo guide plates placed side by sido, provided with transvorso guide grooves for the passago of tho bobbin carriers, said groovos communicating two by two at their bifurcated extremities, and tho rniddlo guide plato being capable of longitudinal displacement, the bobbin carrior being moved in opposito directions from ono bifurcation to another, or on to tho movable guido plato by rociprocating drivers working in conjunction with directing fingors govomod by a Jacquard or other pattern governing or controlling mochanism.

5993. Life Boats, Hafts, Ac., F. W. Brewster, London. 81*t December, 1883. lOd.

This relates principally to vossels built with independent tubular or other shaped pontoons, and consists in making tho saino collapsible or capablo of folding up.

SELECTED AMEKIOAN PATENTS.

(From the United States' Patent Office Official Gazette.)

307,421. Rivettino Machine, John F. Allen, Brooklyn, N.Y.-Filed May 25th, 1883.

Claim.—(1) In a rivotting machino, in combination with the end stako II, and stationary end die L, the | nut M, and horizontal moving slcovo N, provided with scrow thread V, arranged to operate substantially as

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and for tho purpose specified. (2) In a rivetting machino, tho combination, with tho nut M, operating a sleeve N, as doscribcd, of the gearing m, wheel v, shaft p, wheel or cam R, cord 8 and weight W, for the purpose specified.

307,641. Clamp for Steam Rock Drills, George M.

Githens, Brooklyn, N.Y.—Filed February 18 th, 1884.

Claim.—(1) Tho combination, with tho head A and staple and nuts, of a round clamping block grooved upon its surfaces, and fitting into a circular recess at the sido of tho head, substantially as set forth. (2)

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Tlio combination, with the head A, screw staple and nuts, of a round clamping block notched at tho edges for tho staple, and received into a circular recess in the side of the head, substantially as set forth.

307,675. Lumber Measure, Earl C. Newton, Batavia, III.—Filed June 12th, 1884.

Claim.—(1) In a board measuro, tho combination, with traverse wheels of different size, respectively provided with pinions, of the toothed wheel B and its long hand, the toothed wheel C and its short hand, the wh§el G and its pinion, the arm E, the dog 0, the adjustable rotary inner case H, and its dial, substantially as specified. (2) In a board measure, the com-

pinion L, having tho clutch teeth P, sleeve I¹, having the clutch teeth Pi, worm wheel I, connected to said sleeve, shaft O, provided with worm gear Ql, and wheel H and shaft J, journalled within sleeve I*, and adapted to have tho pinion L slido thereon, substantially as described. (4) Tho combination of the worm wheel I, having clutch wheel I¹ connected thereto, clutch pinion L, to engage with the latter, and shaft J, provided with a convex disc journalled within wheel I, substantially as described. (5) In combination with tho table I)¹, having slots e, tho clamp E, pivotted to tho rod R¹, having tho grooves s for adjusting tho tool at different heights to the tablo, and an adjusting screw E², substantially as specified. 307,784. Combined Ejector and Injector, George H.

Little, Peabody, Mass.—Filed April 19th, 1884.

Claim.—An ejector with an annular jet or jets of steam attached to an injector carrying an annular jet or jets of steam arranged in line, in combination with a valve so constructed that they may bo worked independently or together, substantially as shown. A cylindrical or flat-seated valve or valves in one case, and oporated by a hand wheel or lover, to admit steam to the ejector or injector, the water inlot being at tho end of the ejector, and the parts arranged so that tho

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shoes which carry tho teeth or shovels, provided with a tapering or woago shape slot to receive the ends of the arms, and elongated slots through its sides for the fastening bolt and wooden pin, substantially as and for the purpose sot forth.

307,884. Apparatus for Operating Tools by Electricity, Charles J. Van Dcpoclc, Chicago, 111. —Filed February 14th. 1884.

Claim.—Tho combination of a solonoid or hollow magnot, and a core working therein having two poles of like polarity at its onposito oxtromos, and a ceutral {>olo of a different polarity from those at tho onds, with a circuit changer and suitablo oloctricnl connoc-

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tions with tho source of power, whereby tho threo polos of tho core react upon the poles of tho solonoid and induce a reciprocating motion in tho core, substantially as described. The combination of a solonoid, an cloctro-magnet as a core, suitablo electrical connections to cause one of said instruments to givo motion to tho other, and a tool operated by tho motion of tho ving instrument, substantially as described.

in ■

CONTENTS.

The Engineer, December 26th, 1884. page The Danube Bridge Project. No. III. (Illustrated.) ....................

Economy of Railway Construction in India.

No. II.....................

MF.S8R8. Field and Co.’s Candle Works. (Illustrated.) ....................

Letters to the Editor—

Efficiency of Fans..............

Steam Boiler Tests..............

Flow of Water through Turbines......487

Steam Boiler Furnaces............

New Docks at Boston. (Illustrated.)......

Torpedo Equipment of the Navy........

Railway Matters................

Notes and Memoranda ............

Miscellanea...... ............

Leading Articles—

Augmented Railway Rates..........

Whitworth Guns and the “Times”......

The Proportion between Stresses and Sections in Girder Work ..........

Superheated Steam ..............

Shipbuilding in the North..........

Literature ..................

Books Received ................

Wood’s Grinding and Separating Mill.

(Illustrated.)..................

Simple Methods of Calculating Stresses in

Girders. No. I. (Illustrated.)........

American Notes ................

The Iron, Coal, and General Vbadks ok Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and District

Notes from Lancashire ............

Notes from Sheffield ............

Notes from the North of England......

Notes from Scotland..............

Notes from Wales and Adjoining Counties .. 41)3 The Patent Journal Abstracts of Patent American Specifications. 494 Paragraphs—

South Kensington Museum Fatal Colliery Explosion ..

Launch of tho Magncta ..

Drainage of the Lower Thames Valley......482

United States Navy

475

475

470

478

479

487

481

482

483

483

483

485

485

480

480

487

487

487

488

489

491

.. 491

492

492

492

493

493

479

482

482

Ivs

488

New Scholarships ..............

Manchester and Liverpool Water Communication ....................

Naval Engineer Appointments ........

Commercial Advance of tho Edison System .. 493

491

491

u\

VS

water may liavo a straight course, substantially as set forth. In a combined ejector and injector, tho two valves or two part-valve JL h\, made substantially as described, and operated by a levo* .or levers, and whereby steam may be admitted to tho ejector or injector at will. In combination with fbvalve K, and

*7hi

Epps’s Cocoa.—Grateful and Comforting, —“ By a thorough knowledge of the natural laws which govern the operations of digestion and nutrition, and by a careful application of the fine properties of well-selected Cocoa, Mr. Epps has provided our breakfast tables with a delicately-flavoured beverage which may save us many heavy doctors’ bills. It is by the judicious use of such articles of diet that a constitution may be gradually built up until strong enough to resist every tendency to disease. Hundreds of subtle maladies are floating around us ready to attack wherever there is a weak point. We may escape many a fatal shaf t by keeping ourselves well fortified with pure blood and a properly nourished frame.”— Civil Service Uazctte. Made simply with boiling water or milk. Hold only in packets, labelled—“ James Epps &c Co., Homoeopathic Chemists, London.” — Also makers of Epps’s Chocolate Essence.—[AuvT.