screw

the axial component of the velocity being still u;

(iii.)relatively to the revolving screw the water approaches

thescrewon spirals of pitch— or p (1 - .s),and leaves the screw

n

on spirals of pitch p, the axial component of the velocity in each case being u.

(25) Therefore, relatively to the second screw, the water approaches on spiral lines of pitch

on

m (A* - B²) u(n' + n —    ;

\    p' pf

and the thrust of the second screw

2 t* m (A* - B²) - (n'

p \

so that the total thrust T' + T =s 2 7r m (A

) (*-

).

and the efficiency

2 7T

L',

where

and

T (n

7T L ( _ ₊

\u

. P

and therefore the efficiency

1/ = m(A² —

T'= 2 71- m

also—

2 7r m (A² — B²) u    ( n

⁺?(-

\ n . n ( 1

s b-

₌ (T/ + T) u 2 tt L n

r_l

+-

pp pi

then

)■

T = 7r m

pi

and

-)

p /

T' = 7r m so that the efficiency

¹    _I I

p )    p'* U* p* )

(JZ1)

\ u p /

_1__

2 p'* n (— — — )

V u p /

SCKEW PROPELLEK EFFICIENCY.

By Professor A. G. Gkeenhill.

No. II.

(21)    The efficiency previously investigated is what is called by Mr. R. E. Froude the screw efficiency, in his paper, “ A Description of a Method of Investigation of Screw Propeller Efficiency,” in the “Transactions” of the Institution of Naval Architects, 16th March, 1883. This screw efficiency is the efficiency which would be obtained on the supposition that the mean velocity of the wake through the propeller is equal to the speed of the vessel, and would be obtained by moving a model propeller in the experimental tank without the corresponding hull model attached. But experiments with the hull models and ordinary observation of real vessels show that the speed of the wake relatively to the vessel, which we shall still denote by u, is some fraction of the speed of the vessel relatively to the main body of water, which we shall denote by v. Then v — u is the speed of the wake relatively to the surrounding water, and the object of the shipbuilder should be directed to making v - u as small as possible, for the part of the resistance of the vessel due to formation of wake will be proportional to v (v — u). With fine lines at the stern the speed of the wake v - u may be considerably diminished; but v — u will be comparatively large in a vessel with a full stern, and then apparent negative slip of the propeller will sometimes be experienced.

(22)    In the above theory the blades of the screw have been supposed fan-shaped, and not reduced in angular breadth at the tips, so that we may suppose, as in (5) and (6), that the wake of the propeller is made to rotate as if solid. But in practice it is found advantageous, in order to reduce vibration, to shave off the tips of the blades very much to a point, and consequently the outside cylindrical layers of the propeller wake have little or no angular velocity communicated to them, the angular velocity of the cylindrical layers increasing towards the axis. With an increasing pitch this distribution of angular velocity would be acquired by shaving the blades to a point on the leading edge. In this manner, by reducing the angular velocity of the cylindrical layers to zero on the outside surface of the propeller wake, we are enabled to do away with any discontinuity of pressure there between the surrounding water and the propeller wake, and so discard the cylindrical covering of the propeller. The angular momentum of the wake, and consequently the indicated horse-power and the thrust, will in consequence be considerably diminished—probably by one-half; but the considerations of efficiency, &c., will be unaltered.

II.—Double Screws and Guide Blade Propellers.

(23)    Now in order to represent the action of double screws, as suggested by Robert Wilson in the Whitehead torpedo—“ The Screw Propeller; Who Invented It,” by Robert Wilson—or in Ericsson’s original vessel, the Robert F. Stockton, of 1839; and to represent the action of guide-blades for the propeller as devised by Rigg, Parsons, Thorny-croft, and others, let us return to the original screw working in a closed cylinder, and imagine it followed at a constant distance by another screw of opposite pitch p', making n' revolutions per second in the opposite direction to the first screw.

(24)    First, however, consider more closely the motion of the water before and behind the single screw ; then it is seen that

(i.) relatively to the cylinder the water in front of the screw is at rest, and behind the screw is revolving in

circles in planes perpendicular to the axis, making n~-

P

revolutions a second;

(ii.) relatively to the vessel carrying the screw the water in front of the screw is approaching the screw in lines parallel to the axis with velocity v, and leaves the behind in spiral lines of pitch

1

Tc^P-T

-, and leaves

n' + n-u P

spiral lines of pitch p'; so that, relatively to the cylinder, the water, after passing through the second screw, is

left rotating in circles, making n' -—r revs, a second; and

p

if 1/ denotes the turning couple on the second screw in the opposite direction to L on the first screw, then

L' =

T' =

(26) In tire new Whitehead torpedo, 1/ is made equal to , > order to avoid the necessity of the large back and belly im, and of the ballasting otherwise required to prevent the torpedo rotating on its axis; and then, if L' = L,

n' - 4 = 0,

P

and the water leaves the wake of the screws with no rotation ; so that all churning action is suppressed.

Then

T' + T = 2 7T m (A* - B*) u (i-

_    (T' + T) %

C “ 2* LTnT + n)

= P'⁺P n' + n

so that, if p = and n = n\ then e = • U . the same

np

as for a single screw, and no advantage is gained in efficiency by the double screws, supposing them of uniform pitch; the loss by shock at the second propeller counterbalancing the gain of energy from the rotation of the wake, otherwise wasted by a single propeller.

(27) But if the screws are made of increasing pitch, so as to enter the water on the leading edge without shock, then L' has the same value as before (13); but

T =

n! + n a' “

T =

so that, when L' = L,

T + T = tt L (-n' + n ' u

since

e = (T + T)u 2 * L (n' + n)

as it should be, since there is no loss of energy by shock, nor by the churning action in the wake of the screws.

(28) By making n or v! zero, we convert the corresponding propeller into a system of guide blades.

First suppose n' = 0 ; then the after propeller becomes converted into guide blades, as in Bigg’s and Parson’s systems, and

\    p¹ p

(A²-B²) n - — -p \ p‘

L = m (As — Bs)ttf»—

V p/

T = 2 irm (A² —B²) — (n - -- j; the pitch being uniform ; so that T' + T =

— 2 7r m( A* - B²) u and the efficiency

\    u% / ¹

)    n l p'*

n — —

P

For L' and T' to be positive, we must have n---—

VP

positive ; and if d denotes the efficiency without the guide blades, we have

ll

e - e’ —

a positive quantity ; so that a gain of efficiency is obtained by the use of after-guide blades to a propeller.

(29) With increasing pitch, so as to do away with shock,

L = m (A² - B*) u* (--(A² - B²) ?t² ^ n*

(A² - B²) u* I n - —

H™)'

(T' + T )ji

2 7T L 11 so that, by making p' infinite, the stream from the propeller is diverted astern in parallel lines relatively to the vessel, all rotation being taken out of the screw wake, and the efficiency is then unity, as it should be.

(30) Next suppose w = 0, or the forward propeller fixed as guide blades, as in some of Thornycroft’s arrangements; this has the apparent inconvenience of making T negative, so that the guide blades act as a drag on the way of the vessel; but the thrust T' of the second screw, which is now the propeller, is correspondingly increased, so that equal efficiency is obtainable as before, with the advantage of using a propeller of finer pitch and greater number of revolutions, and consequently less percentage of slip.

When it is considered, however, that the guide blades

will be of nearly the same weight as the propeller, while contributing but slightly to the efficiency when fluid friction is to be allowed for, it does not seem likely that, although theoretically valuable, guide blades will come into common use at sea.

THE DURABILITY OF IRON AND STEEL SHIPS.

The substitution of iron for wood as a material for ship construction has rendered it possible not only to build ships stronger than before, but also to diminish the cost of their production and maintenance. It is fortunate for shipowners in these times of low freights that the repairs of ships due to ordinary wear and tear are not usually so considerable as formerly. Dry rot and the other forms of decay which were so prolific a source of trouble and expense in the management of wood vessels, are wholly unknown in their iron and steel successors. The loosening of fastenings and other indications of straining which were so commonly exhibited by wooden ships after a few years of hard work are also experiences of the past; and so are the extensive “openings up” which were periodically resorted to in order to establish a vessel’s claims to reclassification. The shipwright’s bill no longer swallows during a few weeks the earnings of twelve months, unless it be when new decks are wanted, which is not often in the career of any ship. The dry dock proprietor and the painter are the tradesman with whom the shipowner has chiefly to reckon with now-a-days ; with an occasional job for the engineer and boilermaker if his vessel is propelled by steam. The necessity for new boilers is to the steamship owner an ever-existing rock-ahead, and wise is he who sets aside an adequate proportion of each year’s earnings to pay for the boiler or boilers which will inevitably be wanted, should his vessel be fortunate enough to keep afloat until the old ones are worn out. We are concerned at present, however, with the subject of the durability of the hulls of iron and steel ships, apart from that of the machinery; and although depreciation is ever taking place as the age of a vessel increases, yet, with the exercise of due care, the actual deterioration per annum in the strength and quality of the material in an iron or steel ship may, as many shipowners are aware, be reduced to a very small sum indeed. Wood decks will inevitably wear thin, and wood ceilings become defective; but the iron and steel parts of the vessel, if properly attended to, will require little or no expenditure, except for cleaning and painting, during many years. Oxidation is, in fact, the only source of deterioration which has to be provided against; and if oxidation could be entirely prevented, there does not seem to be any reason why an iron or steel ship should decay at all. It becomes therefore an important question to ascertain to what extent the tendency of iron and steel to combine with oxygen may be checked, and in what way that result may be best attained. The experience obtained with existing iron ships is only of a partial and relative character. There are vessels still in existence which were built of iron thirty to forty years ago; but in comparing the condition of some of these with that of wooden vessels of the same age, one is not very favourably impressed with the durable qualities of the former material. But this is due to ignorance regarding the oxidising tendencies of iron on the part of those who first owned these vessels; or if not wholly to ignorance, then certainly to neglect. One fact is very clear:—The iron vessels that have been best cared for are now in the best condition, and those which have been neglected are worse than any wooden vessels would be that had not been attacked with dry rot or other form of decay. From this it would appear that an iron or steel ship, although not liable to serious wasting in the early years of their existence, may yet, if oxidation be permitted to go on, prove to be less durable than a wooden ship. The quality of durability—with which that of maintained strength and seaworthiness is, of course, intimately associated — is therefore not inherent to iron and steel ships, except during a comparatively early part of their existence before the results of oxidation can become very considerable. If the proper precautionary measures for preventing or arresting oxidation are neglected, there is no reason why an iron ship should last any longer in a serviceable condition than a wooden one. Experience with existing iron vessels, built from twenty-five to forty years ago, tends to corroborate these deductions, for some of them are almost as strong and sound as when first built, while others are reduced to the thickness, and therefore strength, of a tin pot.

What, then, are the observed tendencies to oxidation of the several parts of iron and steel ships, and what does experience teach in regard to the best measures for preventing or arresting these tendencies ? For many years after vessels were first built of iron it was supposed that the chief wear and tear would take place in the parts below water. The outer surface of the bottom plating was thought to be particularly liable to wasting by oxidation, and so special measures were early adopted for preventing corrosion thereat by the use of paints and compositions. But very soon it was found that whatever might be the risks of wasting by corrosion to which the outer surface of the bottom plating was exposed, those of the inside surface were far more considerable, especially at the flat of the bottom, between the deep floors, where there is a continual wash of bilge drainage with every movement of the vessel. This fluid, which consists of condensed moisture from the cargo, mixed with drainage from the latter and decomposed organic matter, such as grain, &c., is almost always of an acid character, and its effect upon the iron or steel with which it is in contact is often supplemented by the mechanical action of gravel, pieces of wood, or nut and screw bolts, which have been negligently permitted to get into the limbers. Hence it was very soon found that the inner surface of the bottom plating, to as high as the turn of the bilge, must be protected from the action of such influences as these; and at first a coating of pitch was employed for the purpose. Asphalte was next tried, but by common consent Portland cement was ultimately adopted as the best preservative of this part of the vessel. There is still, however, a lack of agreement in regard to

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the paints and compositions best suited for preventing from which sailing ships must necessarily be exempt, fouling and corrosion on the outer surface. Some ship- Inaccessibility is one of these, and it applies particularly owners pin their faith to one specific and some to another, to the neighbourhood of the machinery and to the interior but so far it is very doubtful whether anything yet tried of ballast tanks and cellular bottoms. It is practically can be depended upon to keep a ship’s bottom fairly clean impossible to give that attention which is needed to the during twelve months. Corrosion has, however, been portion of the hull below the working parts of the reduced to a minimum at this part of a vessel, so that it is machinery, and in most vessels it is difficult to look after not unusual to find the bottom of a ship when about the framing below the boilers. The renewal of boilers is twelve years of age completely covered with an enamel- always attended with the necessity for repairs to the boiler like coating, formed with the many layers of paint which seatings and the adjacent framework of the vessel. But have been applied during that time. But all ships are not such wear and tear is local in its character, and may be alike in this respect, the recently added paint in many made good at a comparatively small cost. The interiors cases being merely a covering to a thick incrustation of of ballast tanks and cellular bottoms are, of course, exrust, and sometimes even of cavernous accumulations of amined at all periodical inspections, but corrosion of the rust and water, the presence of which can be discovered floors and longitudinal girders cannot be prevented, seeing only by the aid of a chipping hammer. Unless oxidation that the double bottom space is frequently filled with is thoroughly removed from iron or steel plating, and the water, and always damp. If the cement on the inside of surface is quite dry, it is of no use to apply paint or any the plating and frames is kept in a good condition, that is composition for preventing corrosion. By bearing this in as much as can be done to preserve that part of a steamer mind, and acting upon it, the bottom of an iron or steel from decay.

ship may prove the most durable part of her. Indeed, The corrosion which goes on in the coal bunkers, due to upon drilling holes at different parts of the plating of the presence of sulphur in the coal, and frequently of old iron ships, it is commonly found that the loss of sub- moisture also, is a serious source of mischief; but it may stance in the bottom is much less than at the topsides, be minimised, and indeed reduced to very small proportions, and very often no depreciation at all in thickness can be by frequent cleaning and painting, taking care never to discovered between Jdie upper part of the bilges and the apply the paint to either a damp or rusty surface. When-keel.    ever a steamer reaches a home port after a foreign voyage

and bedded upon thick red lead paint, also if the bolts be tightly driven, and their nuts screwed upon grummets and washers, then, by keeping the deck seams tight, the durability of the deck plating may be ensured.

A well built and carefully kept iron or steel sailing ship should be practically indestructible so far as decay and wear and tear are concerned, and the life of a steamer is of less duration only in so far as regards the parts to which especial allusion has been made. Whether or not it will commercially pay a shipowner to take such care of his vessels, bearing in mind the risks of ocean navigation to which all ships alike are exposed, is, of course, another matter; but that the use of iron and steel has made it possible to own shipping at a less cost for maintenance than formerly there can be no doubt. This fact has been a considerable factor in reducing the cost of ocean freightage, and therefore in bringing produce at a cheaper rate to the consumer. It has, moreover, tended to augment our national wealth inasmuch as a ship costs less per ton to build and less per ton to keep in good order than was formerly the case. That the average life of a ship should be less than it was under pre-existing conditions shows either that less care is now exercised in their navigation or that the inevitable risks of ocean navigation have been increased. Probably the greater number of ships traversing the seas, and the hurry and drive which characterises their movements, has a great deal to do in

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System, Serres and Jfattig.

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In a properly cemented and frequently coated iron or s(ed ship tnere will be little or no danger of the outer plating wasting by corrosion on its outside surface, except in the region of the water line, and even at that part the tendency may be minimised by carefully removing the rust formed during each voyage and painting the surface. It is upon the inside surface of the plating, above the height to which cement is laid, that the wasting by corrosion chiefly takes place, and it is the top sides of an old iron ship that first come under serious repair and renewal. That the tendency to corrosion should be very considerable at that part is obvious when we consider the influences to which it is exposed. The moisture which evaporates from most cargoes condenses first upon the iron skin, which is kept cool by the sea, and thence it trickles into the limbers. This moisture at once attacks any exposed surface of iron, and yields to the latter a large portion of its oxygen. If the surface is painted the water is unable to do any mischief, nor will corrosion take place so long as the paint endures. But in the course of time moisture gets between the paint and the iron, rust is formed, the paint is thrown off, and conditions are set up that are calculated to speedily depreciate the substance of the plating unless they are arrested. When the ship arrives in port and the cargo is discharged this matter should be at once looked to, and if cleaning and re-painting are found to be necessary they should be carried out at once.

cargo is scarcely out before another one is being put in, and thus ships are often kept running for years without a brush of paint being applied to the inside surface of the side plating. When the paint is put on, too often it is laid upon the rust, and so might just as well have been kept in the paint store. Sailing ships are usually better attended to in this respect than steamers, and this is due to their not being given such quick despatch at the ports of discharge. The delays to which sailing ships are liable, according to the practices which prevail at most ports at home and abroad, are very often advantageously utilised in cleaning and painting the inner surface of the plating, and for this reason, more than for any other, it will probably be found in a few years hence that the life of an iron or steel sailing ship which escapes the perils of the seas is very much longer than that of a steamer. So far as opportunity for comparison has been afforded, the evidence altogether points in that direction.

But steamers are exposed to sources of deterioration of several months’ duration, the state of the bunkers should be examined, and, if necessary, the remainder of the coals should be removed, in order that the ironwork may be properly dealt with.

Having referred to the machinery spaces, bunkers, double and cellular bottoms, and the results of quick despatch, there appears to be nothing left to distinguish the cases of steamers from those of sailing ships, so far as regards the tendencies to decay, and the precautions to be taken in order to make them durable.

Both sailing ships and steamers have at times iron or steel decks, upon which no wood flat is laid; but such an arrangement is much more frequently met with in the latter than in the former. It is to be feared that iron and steel decks will prove a source of trouble in consequence of their rapid corrosion, which nothing tried up to the present time has been able to arrest. It will easily be understood that the frequent breaking of salt water spray upon the surface of an iron or steel plate should cause it to corrode; but the wear and tear of deck plating is found to be much more rapid than that of the outer surface of topside plating exposed to similar conditions. The strength of many iron and steel ships is largely dependent upon the efficiency of their iron or steel decks, so that, by-and-bye, the condition of those decks will become a serious question to shipowners and ship-surveyors. The first use of iron decks was of too recent a date to enable an estimate to be yet made of their ultimate durability; but the thick incrustations of rust commonly found on the iron decks of steamers which were built only four or five years ago, points to a speedy reduction in their substance.

One valuable fact in relation to the durability of iron and steel ships has for some years past been well understood by most shipowners, viz., the necessity for avoiding all wood or other linings on the inside surface of these ships above the cement level. Even in poops and forecastles all coverings to the frames and plating should be avoided. Nowhere does corrosion proceed at a more rapid rate than behind linings where moisture can collect without a sufficient current of air to evaporate it. Exposure, accessibility, and frequent cleaning and painting is necessary for the preservation of iron and steel surfaces. Whenever a surface of iron cannot be got at, as in the case of iron deck plating, stringers, tie plates, &c., below a wood deck, moisture must be carefully excluded, and this can be done only by properly attending to the caulking. If the wood work is carefully fitted in the first instance, increasing the proportion of shipping casualties. But the ships themselves are stronger, and the conditions relating to their maintenance are more favourable than was the case in the days of our wooden walls.

FLOUR MILLING.

We now complete the illustration of the large modern flour mill erected for the Bombay Flour Mill Company, Bombay, by Mr. Henry Simon, C.E., of Manchester, as mentioned and partly illustrated at p. 479 in our last impression. This mill, as originally designed and executed in 1884, included the engine-house, boilei -shed—not shown—and the five floor building marked on the plans as 1st flour mill and wheat-cleaning. In these Mr. Simon erected machinery for cleaning about 3 tons of wheat per hour, and milling machinery for the production of 1 ton of flour per hour.

The risk of fire in the wheat-cleaning department is very considerable, and is due to the foreign impurities, such as stones and metallic substances contained in the wheat. This made it desirable that the cleaning machines should be made ample in capacity to store during a day’s working, sufficient cleaned wheat to supply the roller plant working day and night. The plant was worked at its maximum capacity from the first, ready customers being at hand in the Anglo-Indian population, and whilst more slowly the Hindoo caste prejudices were being overcome, the company received large orders from the Government Commissariat Department to supply flour for our soldiers engaged in the Egyptian campaign, all the flour for the Indian Contingent being ground in this mill.

The company very soon found that the mill, as originally projected, was inadequate to meet the demands upon it, so in the later months of 1885 the additional buildings, as shown in the plans, together with a five floor flour store 50ft. long by 30ft. wide—shown in elevation only—and in a direct line with the engine-house on the opposite side of the mill building were erected, and Mr. Simon was entrusted with the constructiou and erection for the requisite machinery to increase the wheatcleaning plant up to a capacity of 7 tons per hour, and the roller milling plant to a capacity of about tons per hour, or an annual capacity of about 20,000 tons of flour.

Railway wagons bring the wheat by the company’s siding to the warehouse. It is directly shot into a stationery riddle to free it of large impurities, as sticks and stalks, then elevated to an automatic weighing machine with self-registering indicators. After being weighed it falls to a separator provided with large oscillating sieves and exhaust fan. The fan carries off a considerable quantity of loose dust, and the sieves remove straw, sack-strings, and other impurities equally unsuited for bread-making

purposes. The wheat is then conveyed to one of the five storage silos, each of the silos being used for the reception of one class of wheat only—see page 479. Under each of the silos is a measuring machine; these can be adjusted to measure any desired proportion of the five qualities into a large mixing worm. The wheat mixed suitably for the millers’ requirements, is then conveyed to two more separators, the same in principle as that mentioned, but more exact and elaborate in construction. The

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the frictional rubbing is regulated in accordance with the toughness of the bran, which ought not to be injured. After these come the brush machines for finishing off the wheat from the scourer. In connection with each of these machines are directed air currents induced by an exhaust fan, which lifts away the impurities brushed off. Throughout this process the fans connected with the different machines deliver all dust to the outside of the mill, to reduce the risk of damage from

explosion. The wheat is now passed through a second automatic weigher to ascertain the amount of waste occurring in the cleaning, and then elevated to the cleaned wheat-bin. These machines are seen in the plans, page 498, and elevation, page 497.

We now come to the milling machinery proper, and the system adopted for extracting from the wheat the largest available percentage of flour, free from those parts of the wheat berry which diminish its value for breadmaking purposes; and, moreover, as the flour produced from the centre of the wheat berries is richer and of better colour than the flour nearer the bran, its commercial value is also greater, and one aim of the system is to deliver the products

strictly according to their value.

silk or wire cover. These blades have fingers about 2in. wide, which throw the material fed to the centrifugal in a cloud against the cover, and being slightly twisted, pass the material coarser than the meshes along to the end of the machine. The cylinder itself revolves very slowly on the shaft, and strips are fixed longitudinally on its inner surface to elevate the material which falls to the cylinder’s lower surface for further distribution by the beaters against its covers. A screw conveyor runs under the cylinder in the ordinary way, collecting all that passes through the cloth’s meshes. Reels are used for sizing the

coarse and fine middlings. This machine simply contains a large octagonal “ cylinder,” revolving in an inclined plane. The feed passing slowly along it is elevated by its rotation to fall again and again back to its lowest surface, through which particles

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fans of these machines draw off dust, chaff, and straw, and the sieves remove oats, buckwheat, and weed seeds. The wheat is then sized on rotary screens adjustable to suit any wheat mixture.

Each of the sizes made run through metallic cylinders, the interior surfaces of which are covered with indentations, so that clay, round seeds, &c., fall from the passing grain into them.

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The principal machines used in the milling system are : — (1) Three-high roller mills with smooth and corrugated rolls, twenty-eight in number. The positions of these machines are seen in the plans and elevations and sections and perspective views of them given on this page. In this type of roller mill the three rolls are placed one above the other, two distinct rollings of material being made which are kept entirely independent of each other by means of a simple and ingenious combination of cross-channels, conveying the feed to the lower and centre rolls through the ground product passing from the upper and centre rolls.

The centre roll revolves in stationary bearings, and the bearings for the upper and lower rolls are carried on levers to the longer arms of which spring pressure is applied. The distance of the top or bottom roll from the centre roll can be regulated with the greatest nicety withoutalter-ing the spring pressure.

SIMON’S THREE-HIGH ROLLER MILL.

XI

less than the meshes pass, the larger particles travelling forward to the end.

Thirty-two gravity purifiers built in eight frames separate the semolina or coarsest middlings from all impurities. This is effected by means of air currents being passed time after time through the semolina during its passage over directing boards. The boards are adjustable, and currents can be regulated to any extent.

The “ Reform ” purifier is used for the purification of finest middlings. This machine is the last outcome of scientific milling, and has made it possible, we are informed, to thoroughly purify the very finest middlings without waste—a refinement in milling heretofore unattainable. The middlings are fed over a

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SIMON’S TWO-ROLLER MILL.

These cylinders revolve slowly, so that the indentations can empty into a channel above the flow of wheat and be automatically removed. Next come magnetic separators, which collect iron wire, nails, and metallic substances often contained in the wheat. Such wheats as require it can then be run to a washing machine, and after being scrubbed in water, passed forward to a dryer in which centrifugal force and steam combine to remove the moisture. It is thence elevated to the washed wheat bins and mixed in with the unwashed wheats to lay for awhile and become mellow.

The next machines are scourers, which by friction remove chaff and incrustations from the wheat skin. The intensity of

The advantages of the three-high form of roller mill are that the up and down pressures on the centre roll coun-terbalance each other so that practically this roll revolves frictionless in its bearings. The frictional resistance of this mill should therefore only equal that of a pair roller mill of half its capacity, but the friction is further considerably reduced by supporting the upper and lower roll axles on the peripheries of gun-metal pulleys of large diameter instead of in ordinary fixed bearings. That the vertical arrangement of rolls occupies considerably less floor space is also an advantage apart from the facility for adjustment which it secures.

Twenty-eight centrifugal machines, with cylinders 10ft. long, some of which are covered with wire—to resist abrasion—are used for scalping the broken wheat from the first break rolls and the wheatmeal, and the remainder, covered with silk cloth, are used to dress out flour from the coarse and middlings, i.e., unreduced granular contents of the wheat kernel. A shaft passes through the centre of the cylinder provided with arms, to which are attached blades parallel with the shaft for the length of the cylinder, and at only a slight distance from its

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SIMON’S TWO-ROLLER MILL.

roller on to a rapidly oscillating sieve, the whole surface of which is exhausted by a fan ; above the sieve and close to is a grid of channels formed so as to intensify the air currents immediately on leaving the silk surface. The machine is provided with—-or without—a filter composed of flannel, through which the air passes before entering the fan. Pure middlings pass through the meshes of the silk cover, whilst partial pure middlings are deposited by the action of the intensified current into the grid of channels, thence automatically conveyed for regrinding. The lighter impurities are deposited by the air current on the filter cloth, from which they are collected by simple mechanism and delivered outside the machine.

The system on which the machines of the first and second! roller mill plants are connected is so similar that a description of one will suffice. The wheat is conveyed from the cleaned wheat bin to a rotary sizer with adjustable meshes which divides the wheat into two sizes; each size is fed to a pair off corrugated rolls, the office of these being to open the grain along:; the crease; it is elevated from these to a combined wire andl silk centrifugal. The broken wheat is scalped on the wire, andl

what passes through the meshes of the wire goes on to the silk section, where a small percentage of flour mixed with dirt from the wheat crease is dressed out and the middlings and semolina passed to a sizing reel preparatory to purification, and from there for after reduction in the smooth roller mills. The greater portion of the wheat does not pass through the wire meshes, but tails over the end of the cylinder and is passed to a second roller mill, which with its sharp corrugations cuts out a portion of the wheat kernel. After this grinding it is again elevated, and goes through exactly the same scalping and dressing process as before; this is continued in the same gradual manner five successive times, the tails of the last centrifugal scalper being bran, from which all the kernel has been extracted. The semolina and middlings are assorted according to quality, and after being sized are passed to the gravity and reform purifiers. The pure products from these purifiers can be reduced on the smooth rolls and dressed through the after centrifugals as flour, but the semi-pure products can be only disconnected from these impurities on the rollers, and after further purification the products freed from impurities can be ground into flour; this makes the process of reducing, dressing, and re-purifying for the semolina and middlings a very gradual one to insure high-class results, severe grinding on impure middlings resulting in discoloration of the flours.

The engine manufactured by Messrs. Yates, Blackburn, driving the plant, is of the horizontal compound condensing type, with cylinders 17in. and 30in. diameter by 4ft. stroke.

Steam at a working pressure of 100 lb. per Bquare inch is supplied by two Lancashire boilers 30ft. long by 7ft. diameter. The engine we illustrated in our last impression, and we now give with further illustrations of the mill and machinery, a sectional view of the cut-off arrangement of this engine. The power is transmitted from the engine flywheel, as will be gathered from the engravings, by cotton ropes.

This wheel is 2Cft. diameter

simultaneously uncovering those at the other end. Connected with the cam is an arrangement for regulating the point of cut-off direct from the governor, thus adjusting the admission of steam to suit any variations of load under which the engine may have to work. This gear is shown on this page. This arrangement consists of two hollow shafts, one being within the other, and the outer one on which the cam is fixed having helical slot cut in it, whilst the inner one,"driven from the crank shaft, has in it a straight slot. These two shafts are connected by a steel die attached to and worked by the piston of a small cylinder actuated by either steam or water pressure, and fitted with a valve worked by the governor /j so connected by an arrangement of levers as Of to retain the die under the absolute control of l|| the governor, thereby shifting the position of the j HI cam so as to cut off earlier or later as required. |j|

The ground-floor shaft drives, as seen in the |j| plan, page 497, all the roller mills on first- 11 floor and. the whole of the wheat-cleaning ill machinery, but by means of friction clutches the wheat-cleaning machinery and second flour mill can be stopped at will.

The second-floor shaft drives directly on to the purifiers and centrifugals, and

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The answers to questions put to the several railway companies using iron or steel sleepers by the Technical Commission of the Society of German Railway Directors have been embodied in the form of a paper by Herrn J. Ribar, to whom we are indebted for the following details :—

Cross sleepers.—The profiles mostly in use are based on three main systems—the so-called Vautherin profile, the profile of Hilf’s longitudinal sleeper, and quite recently the so-called Haarmann profile. The Vautherin profile, which created some considerable excitement in 1867, having been found too weak, several companies, especially the Berg-Mark Railway, who liked the form of sleeper, instituted a succession of trials with modifications, shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, page 438. Since the improvements shown there have been no further complaints of loose fastenings and cracks in the neighbourhood of the rail seat, but the flat horizontal projections have been found not to act well in rough ballast, consequently further alterations in this direction, more nearly assimilating the profile of Hilf’s longitudinal sleeper — Fig. 8 — have been made as shown in Figs. 7, 9, and 10. Out of nine railways using the Vautherin profile, six answered in favour of, and nine against it. Eleven railway companies, using a modified form of Hilf’s longitudinal profile, all speak in favour of it; but from the result of experience suggest the lengthening of the vertical flanges. This modification, adopted in Heindl’s profile —Fig. 10—has been found to be a great improvement in keeping a steady, well-packed road. The introduction of

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The valves are of the ordinary Blide pattern, the main valve being worked from the crank shaft by an excentric in the ~:s== usual way. The cut-off valve is ■    '■

on the back of the main valve, and arranged so that whilst travelling with it horizontally it is free to move in a direction at right angles to it, such

Svei⁰andbrodSattachedeto a^Hde actuated by a cam of special    with    wide leather belts the two line shafts on the top floor    into it. The different means

struction which is provided with anti-friction rollers chilled    drive    scalpers, sizers, and elevators. In the longitudinal eleva-    (a) curving the sleepers throughout their    entire length, Figs.

’    ^    tion,    page 479, the elevator boxes are shown broken off    11 and 13 ; (b) curving the two ends and    leaving the middle

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ffhe steam passages in the cilt-off valve consist of a number    near the gfouiid. TlKeir position    in plan is shown    in    the    horizontal, lugfe. 12 and 16 ; (c) canting    the , ail seat and leafiilg

bf small ports, corresponding to similar ports in the back of the    engravings on the same page and    above. Again, by    means    the middle and ends horizontal, lugs, la ana 1/ ; or w rolling

inhin valve, which are so arranged that the movement of the    of a friction clutch, all machinery    in the upper floors    of    the    the sleepers horizontal throughou anc    inser mg wecgc p a es

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THE ENGINEER.

June 25, 1886.

systems is as follows :—Nine railways declare there is no objection to bending the sleepers. One railway objects because a bent sleeper cannot be straightened again without the risk of breakage. On the other hand, eight railways using bent cross sleepers as cross binders betweent longitudinal sleepers, and to give the proper cant to the rails, object to the curvature, as, if improperly packed, the bent ends straighten out and produce a widening of the gauge. According to the experience on Dutch railways, with sand ballast, the bent sleepers are apt to rock and produce a dangerous oscillation of the trains. The methods of fastening the rails down to the sleepers are either keys and wedges, clip plates, or screw bolts. The old form of key and cotter is maintained by very few railways ; where still employed the holes in the sleepers are all bored alike, and the variation of gauge in curves effected by using fastening pieces of different thicknesses. The key and inner cotter remain the same, while the outer cotter and closing piece are made stronger. There are therefore four constant and four variable parts for every sleeper, and, if the latter be straight further, two packing plates for obtaining the cant. The alteration of the gauge from 0 up to 20 millimetres, in instalments of 4 millimetres, can be effected by the use of the different fastenings. The majority of the railways use screw bolts and clips, when the gauge is varied partly by a shoulder on the bolt, partly by a shoulder on the clips, and partly by means of separate packing pieces. The fastenings used on the Hessian-Ludwig Railway and the Royal Railway Direction, in Frankfurt-on-Main—Fig. 23, page 502—belong to the first category. The first named use a bolt with a square shoulder projecting 9 millimetres, whereby differences of either 9 or 18 millimetres alone can be obtained. The last named have adopted Messrs. Kluge and Behrend’s system—Fig. 23a—by which the gauge can be altered 4, 8, 12, or 16 millimetres, and are now trying the system shown in Fig. 236. Several systems are in use where the widening of the gauge is effected by a series of ying clips. Fig. 22 shows the system in force on the Kais.

Franz Josef’s Railway, which is very similar to the fastening of the Roy. Prussian—the Gotthard and the Main-Necker Railways—one objection to it is that the foot of the rail is in direct contact with the bolt; another, that there are so many different types in the series that a very slight error produces too great an expansion of gauge. The first objection has been removed by the Roy. Railway Direction—Left Rhine Railway—by increasing the strength of the clip plate on Rueppel’s system—Fig. 26 —so that the foot of the rail is in contact with the clip plate throughout its length. Another method of widening the gauge is the insertion of separate packing pieces. This has the advantage of simplicity, but the disadvantage of an increased number of parts. The system of Roth and Schuler—Fig. 24—is similar in principle, and has been introduced on the Saarbruck, Baden, and isolated lengths of the Bavarian lines. The widening of the gauge up to 20 millimetres in gradations of 2 millimetres is effected by the insertion of square excentrically bored plates on one or other of the rails. The method is simple, but has the disadvantage, that the packing piece transmits the lateral thrust of the rail to the bolt instead of to the sleeper. Heindl’s system—Fig. 28—consists of straight sleepers and a wedge-shaped foot-plate, with a projection on the thicker end against which the rail presses, to give the necessary cant. The movement of the plate in either direction is prevented by having a slot cut on either side, into which the clips fastening the rail fit, and the lateral thrust of the rail is thereby transmitted direct to the sleeper without affecting the bolts. The advantages of this method outweigh the disadvantages of the previously-mentioned systems, and its simplicity more than counterbalances its excessive number of parts. A system differing totally from any other is Haarmann’s construction for Yautherin sleepers, Figs. 29, a and 6. It consists of a steel saddle with two shoulders, between which the rail fits. Sleeper, saddle, and rail are held together by two clips, with a horizontal bolt passing through saddle and rail. A pin on the base of the saddle fitting into the sleeper prevents lateral motion.

There is no means of regulating the gauge but boring fresh holes for every case. The fastenings on Haarmann’s profile—

Fig. 27—consist of a foot-plate with reversed hooks, which is let into the sleeper under the foot of the rail and fastened on the inner side by a clip plate wTith shoulder and a bolt. Hook and clip plate are variable to allow of a variation of gauge up to 30 millimetres. There are a series of four of each, all difficult to make, and more difficult to fit, as the sleepers are apt to move and the rail flange to press on the hooks. All cross sleepers are now closed at the ends in one of the methods shown in Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21. Attempts to supply the lack of friction where the sleepers are not packed throughout their whole length show that the extra cost is scarcely compensated by the result.

Longitudinal sleepers.—This form of sleeper is known on the Continent under three heads, the single system consisting of main part, the double system consisting of two mains parts, and the triple system consisting of three main parts. There is only one form of the single system in use in Germany, viz.,

Hartwicks, which has, however, been removed from all main lines, and is only employed in secondary railways. To the double system belong Hilf’s profile with improvements, and the profiles Hohrnegger and Haarmann; to the tripe system profiles,

Scheffler and De Serres-Battig. The modifications of Hilf's system by Menne and Hohrnegger are shown in Figs. 31, 32, and 33 respectively. The methods employed for cross-fastening the sleepers vary from simple tie bolts on Hilf’s first system to single L ties on the Berlin Nordhalisen Railway, “|-form—Fig.

37—on the Upper Silesian Railway, and to cross sleepers under the longitudinals, where a departure from the strict principle of longitudinals has been adopted. In Hohrnegger’s and Haarmann’s systems—Figs. 30, 38, and 39—the sleepers are strongly fished; in Hilf’s, in addition to the fish-plates, a supporting piece is inserted to prevent the middle rib indenting the crossbinder. The report as to the results of fishing the sleepers from those railways who have tried the system are very favourable.

They sayA strong and complete fishing, i.e., one embracing the entire profile of the longitudinal sleeper, has been found in nearly all cases a necessity with every form in use.” In Hohrnegger’s new system—Hilf’s profile—the vertical ribs have been lengthened, and the head-plate fitted with projections either side to insure the position of the rail. By this means, and by the employment of wedge-shaped clips, any bending or drilling the sleepers can be corrected. The ends of the sleepers butt on strong saddles 400 mm. long, to which they are fastened on one side by the angular rail fish-plate and on the other by a special flat fish-plate laid horizontally. To keep the gauge and cant cross-binders are introduced every three metres, on which similar saddles 120 mm. long are fastened. In Haarmann’s system the longitudinal sleeper has the form shown in Fig. 39, a, 6, c, and d. To insure the gauge /    \ shaped,

cross-binders, splayed between the metals, are employed. On the Berlin City Railway gauge rods have to be employed as well. The cant of the rails and fishing of the sleeper joints are effected by a special saddle fastened to the cross binders. This system ’With 3ehwedler’s improvements is largely employed on the' paid for interest on capital should not exceed in any one year

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Prussian States Railways. Longitudinal sleepers on Hilf’s system are rolled straight and drilled according to the radiation of curve. Hohrnegger’s and Haarmann’s are bent warm to the desired curve. The expansion of gauge where stiff crossbinders are employed is effected by drilling the binders to suit the variation. The rails, with the exception of Haarmann’s, are fastened down by bolts and clips. In all systems, except Hohrnegger’s, the foot of the rail comes in contact with the bolt, a great disadvantage. With regard to the so-called “ triple ” system, these, like Hilf’s, are supposed to facilitate the exchange of parts. In Scheffler’s—Fig. 40 A. D.—the rail is fastened between longitudinal bearers. The joints of upper and lower rail break, and the latter are joined by fish-plates. The gauge is kept by angle shape cross-binders. The upper and lower rails are bent and drilled in the works. This system has been at work on different parts of the Brunswick Railway for nineteen, sixteen, fourteen, and twelve years, and answers its purpose well. De Serres’ and Battig’s system—Fig. 41— consists of a mushroom-headed rail with an inclined surface instead of cant. The web is gripped by two lower rails \    / form, with the arms at an angle of 45 deg.

According to the Austro-Hungarian States Railway, to which the inventors belong, the system is good. On the other hand, the Dutsch States Railway have removed the 5 kilos, laid by them on this system, and give an unfavourable verdict on the results. In the answers of the several railways the advantages advanced in favour of longitudinal sleepers are:—(a) The regular continuous transmission of the thrust of the load to the ballast ; (6) the consequent moderate tension of parts, compared with that produced in rails laid on cross sleepers ; (c) the smooth, even travel of trains ; and (d) the consequent lesser strain on the rolling stock ; (c) less danger of breakage of rails ; (/) greater security against lateral thrust. The disadvantages :— (a) The complication of construction ; (6) the troublesome and careful erection required in special shops ; (c) the necessity of always having a large spare stock on hand ; (d) the necessity of a very costly system of ballast drainage; (e) the difficulty of maintenance in winter. In favour of cross sleepers, the advantages put forward are:—(a) The great security against expansion of gauge ; (6) the simplicity of the entire system ; (c) the facility of slewing the rails when required ; (d) the greater ease with which the ballast can be drained ; (c) the facilities in reconstruction and exchange of parts.

The railway direction of Saxon States Railways comes to the following conclusion :—“ The use of iron sleepers in general is in a state of probation, definite conclusions in favour of one or the other system cannot be drawn. The main desideratum for the longitudinal system is a deep bed of ballast, coarse, porous, free from earth and sand, with the best possible system of drainage. Unfortunately all drains for this purpose become useless after a time. Security is afforded by all the systems in use. With regard to the best position of the rails as to height, direction, and gauge, no definite opinion has been formed to which system preference must be given. Also as to the comparative cost of maintenance of both systems in the absence of statistieal data as to the behaviour of longitudinal and cross sleepers under similar conditions—especially with equally good packing—and owing to the proportionately short time of observation, there is no certain standard to go by. The cross sleepers, when the profile is strong, the sleepers not too short, and their ends closed, appear to answer all requirements. As to the best form and weight of longitudinal and cross sleepers, the height and weight of rails, and the best form of cross-binders, further experience must be waited for. The fastening the rails to the sleepers by bolts has been more generally adopted than by wedges. There are no data as to the life of iron sleepers.”

A somewhat less ambiguous decision might have been expected from the data furnished ; but the verdict is a safe one. It neither condemns nor favours any system of sleepers, but lays the whole burden on the drainage of the ballast.

THE MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL.

By heroic exertions, and by an unusual degree of self-sacrifice on the part of the House of Lords, the Manchester Ship Canal Bill has at last been pushed through both Houses of Parliament. A week or ten days ago the prospect in regard to this measure was once more gloomy, despite the adoption of a new Standing Order by the Upper House, for a dissolution had been announced, and this seemed likely to be fatal to the Bill; but realising the serious considerations involved, the House resolved to make a desperate effort to run the Bill through, the House of Commons having already passed it. Accordingly a Select Committee, consisting of Earl Milltown—chairman—Earl Ducie, Earl Strathmore, the Earl of Howth and Viscount Hood, met on Friday last to consider this scheme for enabling the Ship Canal Company to pay a certain amount of interest out of capital during the construction of the works. There were at one time petitions against the Bill from various quarters, including the Corporation of Liver-popl, the Mersey Docks Board, and the London andNorth-Western Railway Company, but eventually only the first two of these now mentioned appeared before the Committee by counsel. Mr. Pember, Q.C., on behalf of the promoters, explained that the object of the Bill was simply to allow the payment of interest during construction, and pointed out that the Bill was absolutely in accordance with the new’ Standing Order which had been passed by the House of Lords this year, which Standing Order was in fact a reprint of the one which had been in force for some years in the House of Commons. That Standing Order empowered the Committee on the Bill to insert a clause permitting the payment of interest out ®f capital, subject to the following conditions:— That the rate of interest allowed by the Committee do not in any case exceed 4 per cent.; that the interest be allowed to be paid only in respect of the time allowed by the Bill for the completion of the canal, or such less time as the Committee think fit; that payment of interest do not begin until the Board of Trade have certified that at least two-thirds of the share capital authorised by the Bill have been actually issued and accepted and held by shareholders legally liable for the same; that the aggregate amount to be so paid be estimated and stated in the Bill, and be not deemed capital within Standing Order 112 ; that notice of the power to pay such interest be given in every prospectus, advertisement, or other document of the company, inviting subscriptions for shares ; and that the half-yearly accounts of the company show the amount on which and the rate at which interest has been paid. The meaning of Standing Order 112 was that the amount to be paid as interest was not to be treated as capital. The Board of Trade had made two reports on the Bill, one to the House of Commons, and the other to the House of Lords, and both recommended that the provisions of the Bill deserved the favourable consideration of Parliament. Mr. Pember further argued that the Bill in every respect complied with the new Standing Order and followed the precedent of the Regent’s Canal, &c., Act of 1885. Clause 3 of the Bill, which was the operative clause, proposed that the amount to be the sum of <£75,200; and that the capital authorised by the Ship Canal Act should be reduced by one-fourth of that sum. He did not think the Standing Order upon which the Bill was based could now be a matter of discussion. The first point to be determined by the Committee was that of the locus standi of the two petitioners, viz., the Corporation of Liverpool and the Mersey Dock Board. One of the contentions of the latter body was that the promoters having failed to get their capital were not entitled to the Bill, but to this Mr. Pember, resisting at some length both petitions, replied that what the promoters had done was to issue a circular te the friends of the undertaking, marked private, asking for subscriptions, and they had got subscriptions privately to the amount of £750,000, but that private prospectus contained a declaration to the effect that the promoters intended to apply for the present Bill, and obviouly under those circumstances many of those to whom the paper was communicated would withhold their subscriptions until they saw what became of the BilL But, acting under the advice of Lord Rothschild, they had never gone to the public. Supposing they had, as alleged, been unable to find their capital, that was why they were now in Parliament, and because they were informed by the first financiers of the world that this Bill was necessary. This, however, did not entitle the petitioners to a locus standi. The Regent’s Canal Company in 1881 did what the Manchester Ship Canal Company now proposed to do. The Ship Canal Company took its Bill in the ordinary way, hoping to get the capital necessary to carry out the undertaking.

Mr. Pope, Q.C., and Mr. Bidder, Q.C., upheld the right of the petitioners to a locus standi, and in the end the Committee decided in their favour.

Mr. Pember then dealt with the Bill on its merits, and observing that the new Standing Order—which we explained a few weeks ago—was really due to this Bill, he claimed for the promoters a title to have the Bill sanctioned. In the course of his argument he said it was the magnitude of the undertaking that made the difficulty in finding the capital; and urged that it was particularly unfair that interest should be postponed in this case, because in consequence of the physical formation of the canal and other reasons not a single shilling could be earned till the whole of the money had been spent and the canal was opened. They were obliged to come for the Bill this year because they were bound to buy the Mersey and Irwell within two years and they were bound to raise £5,000,000 before they commenced to execute any of the works, and that meant altogether raising £6,700,000 within two years after the passing of the Act. With regard to the question of assets and liabilities, the learned counsel said that it would be found that there would be plenty of money to meet all the obligations of the company. The estimates of the promoters of the canal had always been ample if not to say excessive. The cost, of the construction of the canal was estimated by the promoters at £6,300,000, but the greatest contractors in England had offered to undertake the work for £5,750,000 with all risks. That offer had been made by Messrs. Lucas and Aird. The assets of the Canal Company were £8,000,000, share capital, borrowing pow'ers £1,812,000, and the income from the Bridgewater and Irwell Navigation made up a total of £10,032,000. The liabilities would show that after everything had been paid for there was a surplus of assets over liabilities of £505,564. That surely was a sufficient surplus to satisfy the requirements of Clause 36 of the Ship Canal Act. After the arguments came evidence of a totally new character, but we can only briefly indicate it. Mr. Aird, of the firm of Aird and Lucas, stated that his firm had offered to complete the whole of the canal works within four years for £5,750,000 everything included, so far as the works were concerned. Mr. Daniel Adamson, chairman of the Canal Company, explained the negotiations with Messrs. Rothschild as to raising the capital. They advised, he said, that power should be sought to pay interest out of capital, and they offered to manage the business at a charge of 1 per cent, on the capital they raised, leaving the promoters to subscribe as much as they thought proper without making any charge, arrangement wTas contingent on their getting permission to pay 4 per cent, interest, and as soon as their intention to apply to Parliament became known, their friends did not subscribe as largely as was expected. Up to the present £750,000 had been subscribed without any promise to pay interest upon it.

Another witness examined was Sir Joseph Lee, deputy chairman of the company, who stated that he had made the following estimate of available capital and capital expenditure:— The share capital would be £8,000,000; loan capital, less maximum deduction, £1,812,000; estimated income of Bridge-water Navigation during construction, £220,000. The expenditure of capital would be: Purchase of Bridgewater and Mersey and Irwell undertakings, £1,710,000; cost of works, £5,750,000 ; cost of land, £742,690 ; interest on called-up capital, £752,000; interest on borrowed capital, £105,000; preliminary expenses, £146,000 ; cost of purchase and conveyance of land, £60,246; cost of engineering staff and other expenses attending works, £120,000; Rothschilds’ commission and cost of management, £140,000 ; total expenditure out of capital £9,525,936; leaving a surplus of £506,064. The only item in these figures not contemplated last year was the £752,000 interest on paid-up capital. Assuming that the Bill passed they proposed to make successive calls, beginning on the 1st July, 1886, and ending July 1st, 1890, of 40s., 20s., 20s., 20s., 10s., 20s., 10s., 20s., 10s., and 20s., per share, which would make a total of £7,600,000 called up on the 1st July, 1890. The respective payments of interest on these calls would be £16,000, £24,000, £64,000, £80,000, £88,000, £104,000, £112,000, £128,000, and £136,000, making a total of £752,000 interest paid on the 1st July 1890. They propose to raise £1,500,000 on debentures. That added to the £7,600,000 share capital and the £220,000 revenue from the Bridgewater, would make a total available capital of £9,320,000, or £205,936 less than the estimated expenditure; but they would have a reserve uncalled share capital of £400,000, and unexercised borrowing powers of £312,000, or a total of £712,000 against the £205,936.

At the close of the evidence, the speeches of the several counsel, the Committee decided to pass the preamble of the Bill. Subsequently the decision of the Committee was reported to the House of Lords, and on Monday the Bill was read a third time, and so at last became ready for the Royal Assent.

meeting to elect officers, adopt bye-laws and regulations, and to transact other business in connection with the association which they have formed of the Birmingham students. The objects of this section of the institution being to promote and encourage the acquisition of knowledge amongst the Birmingham students in all subjects connected with the profession of a civil engineer, a series of visits will be made to works of interest in the neighbourhood, and meetings will be held during the winter months at which papers will be read and discussed by the members. Mr. R. Green was elected honorary secretary and treasurer, and Messrs. F. W. Cross, K. W, James, and H. L. Tarbct were elected members of the executive committee,

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BARRING ENGINE.

MESSRS. GALLOWAY AND SONS, MANCHESTER, ENGINEERS.

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and the centrifugal action of the heated products of combustion brings every portion of them successively against the tube, therefore causing them to give up more of their heat than when passing through a straight tube. The chamber to the left acts as a combustion chamber; that to the right, from which the uptake Arises, is the smoke-box. The door B of the former is lined with firebrick. The two chambers are made of a fine mild ductile steel, and the firm have recently put down special hydraulic machinery for shaping them by pressure without welding or rivetting They Fig. 2

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In our notice of Messrs. Galloway and Sons’ engines at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition we referred to the barring mechanism used for turning these engines. Hand mechanism answers for small machinery, but not for large; and Messrs. Galloway have produced the very compact and efficient arrangement which we illustrate, a small steam engine being used instead of hand labour. The spur wheel seen to the left on the spiral feather gears into the cogged rings on the inside of the fly-wheel. As we have already explained, so long as the barring gear is driving the main engine, the action of the spiral feather is to keep the pinion in gear with the fly-wheel of the main engine; but the moment the crank has been got over the centre and the main engine starts, it will overrun the barring engine and screw the pinion out of gear along the feather. The means by which motion is transmitted by the crank shaft of the barring engine to the pinion will be readily understood from the engraving.

PAXMAN’S VERTICAL BOILER.

The adjoining illustrations show two arrangements of a vertical boiler patented by Messrs. Davey, Paxman, and Co., engineers, of Colchester. This firm is honourably known in connection with the design and manufacture of steam boilers, a business which they have carried on for many years. They have identified their name with vertical boilers ever since the trials at the Oxford show of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1870, at which a vertical boiler exhibited by them evaporated 941b. of

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plan. Fig. 2 is the same boiler in section. It consists of the usual external shell C, with dished top, containing a circular fire-box. Above the fire-box are two chambers of a triangular shape in plan. The chamber to the left is connected to the firebox by the curved neck or flue, Fig. 3, and this chamber is con-

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carefully annealed the last thing after being shaped, so as to restore any toughness they might have lost during shaping. Fig. 2 shows another arrangement of the boiler, wherein the uptake passes through the centre of the top, and the combustion chamber is altogether within the shell. A third modification has the combustion chamber arranged as in Fig. 1, and the smoke box and uptake as in Fig. 3. The following advantages are claimed for the boiler:—Large proportionate area of heating surface, advantageous disposition of it both for efficient evaporative action and unlikelihood to cause priming; ease of cleaning, inspection, or repair, facilities for expansion and contraction. Being inexpensive to make, can be sold at reasonable prices. The boiler ought certainly to be an efficient steam generator; we should expect it to evaporate ten pounds of water from 60 deg. Fah. per pound of good coal.

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Presentation of an Address to Mr. Carbutt, M.P.—A deputation of Civil Engineers of the Indian Public Work* Department, headed by Mr. H. Lambert, superintending engineer, first grade, waited on Mr. G. H. Carbutt, M.P., at his private residence in Hyde Park Gardens, on June 21st, to present him with an address subscribed for by 700 civil engineers in India. The address, which was designed and carried out by Mr. Allan Wyon, of Regent-street, is engraved on vellum and inclosed in a sil gilt repousse-work frame or triptych. The deputation was received by Mr. Carbutt, and Mr. Lambert spoke as follows:—“ We, acting on behalf of a meeting of Civil Engineers of the Indian Public Works Department, held this day at the Westminster Palace Hotel, beg to present you with this testimonial which has been subscribed for by the Civil Engineer members of the Department.” Mr. Lambert then proceeded to read the address, which is as follows:—“ To Edward Hamer Carbutt, Esq., M.P.,— In grateful remembrance of the disinterested efforts he persistently and successfully made in advocating the cause of the Civil Engineers of the Department of Public Works serving in the dominions of her Imperial Majesty the Empress of India. Employed as they are upon works which are of vast importance to the welfare of that great empire, under conditions of climate which are dangerous to health, and circumstances of isolation which are depressing to the spirits, they are supported in their duties by the thought that, in constructing canals, railroads, public buildings, and other works, their labours, under the Government of India, are of service to the teeming millions of their fellow subjects in Hindostan by relieving them from the scourge of periodical famine, by promoting the humanising influence of intercommunication, and by strengthening the power of a beneficent Government exercised for the welfare of those committed to its charge. But the unequal treatment of the various branches of the service which was at one time conspicuous, aroused feelings incompatible with the high tone and generous spirit which should animate all the members of a noble service employed upon duties calculated to inspire the highest enthusiasm. For the removal of many of these inequalities, which pressed so seriously upon the moral welfare and the material interests of the Civil Engineers of the Department of Public Works in India, its members are indebted to the untiring efforts and vigilant care which Mr. Carbutt, as a member of the Imperial Parliament, assisted by other friends, generously bestowed upon procuring the redress of their grievances, and they desire by this memorial to record their high sense of services so freely given, and which will ever be gratefully remembered.” Mr. Carbutt, M.P., in reply, said that, being a civil engineer himself, it was only natural that he should take an interest in the welfare of civil engineers generally, but more especially in those members of the profession who, as stated in the address, were working under adverse circumstances of climate and isolation. He was glad to be able to think that by constant and repeated representations to successive Secretaries of State for India that the civil engineers had gained some valuable and equitable concessions ; and it was only by constant pressure of this kind that the redress of their remaining grievances might be obtained. He begged to thank the civil engineers for the beautiful address they had given him. It would serve to remind him that if he had done nothing else during his service as a member of Parliament he had at least gained so valuable a mark of esteem from a large body of engineers in India. The deputation then withdrew.

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water per pound of common coal—a most remarkable duty for a vertical boiler at that time—and showed itself to be the best vertical boiler then brought out. A result, however, which was nected with that opposite it by a number of tubes D, as shown: subsequently exceeded by a trial carried out at Taunton show, these tubes are bent to such a curve as, while suiting the shape when the Paxman boiler was awarded the Royal Agricultural of the boiler shell, admit of their being put in or withdrawn Society’s silver medal. The boiler we now illustrate will without disturbing any other part of the boiler. They are be seen to have a very large heating surface in proportion to larger at one end than at the other, and can therefore be put in the size of the shell, and also that it is well arranged to act or withdrawn without difficulty. Their curved shape gives efficiently. Fig. 1 shows one arrangement of the boiler in ample facility for expansion and contraction without straining,

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RADIAL ARM DRILLING MACHINE.

MR G. F. SMITH, HALIFAX, ENGINEER.

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HEATING AND VENTILATING IN THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE.

Each radiator has a separate flow and return fin. wrought iron pipe, and is provided with valves in the basement and others attached to itself. The chapel is warmed by a box coil of four lfin. wrought iron pipes placed behind the seating, with openings

RADIAL ARM DRILLING MACHINE.

The accompanying illustration represents a very powerfully geared self-contained radial arm drilling machine of massive construction. The main standard for carrying the arm is fitted and bolted on a strong base plate, 13ft. long, 5ft. wide, having longitudinal T grooves for bolting the work down. The arm is raised and lowered by power readily applied by lever when the drill is in motion. The drill head is adjustable on the arm. There is a self-acting feed to the spindle. The radius of the arm is 8ft. 6in., and the clear height under the spindle to the top of the base plate 8ft.; the vertical traverse of the arm is 3ft. 6in. The drill head is adjustable on the arm 5ft. 6in.; the self-acting feed of the spindle is 24in. The driving cone and gearing are carried by an arm bracket cast to the standard. This arm has a radius of 190 deg., and is traversed vertically self-acting by means of a wrought iron clutch fitted inside the main standard. The lever for operating this clutch is placed in a convenient position at the outside of the standard, so that the motion can be quickly changed to raising or lowering the arm. The drill head is traversed along the arm slide by a rack and pinion, with a hand wheel variable feed motion to the spindle; the latter works in a barrel with parallel and conical adjustable bearings to keep the spindle perfectly true. There is a screw feed to the spindle provided with hardened steel washers to resist the back pressure of the cut, and lock-nuts to take up back lash and prevent the spindle falling by its own gravity. This machine weighs 11^ tons, and is the largest radial drilling machine ever made in Halifax. It has been designed and constructed for a large public works in China by Mr. G. F. Smith, machine tool maker, Halifax, England.    _

Since the great explosion at Hell Gate 12,000 tons of rock have been taken out and dumped between Hog’s Back and Ward’s Island. Some 18,000 tons remain dislodged, and three large grappling machines are raising the mass at the rate of 300 tons daily. The American Mechanical Engineer says it is calculated that it will take three years to reduce the nine-acre reef so that there will be a depth of 26ft at mean low water.

The heating and ventilating arrangements of the Royal Holloway College, Egham, have been carried out under Mr. R. B. Stirratt, engineer, Westminster, and the following concerning them will be of interest:—For the heating, the leading conditions were that the medium be steam; the boiler-house to be 200 yards distant from the main building. The latter is 525ft. by 360ft. square. That four corridor floors, besides entrances, should be heated, and capable of being controlled from the basement or locally. Those points have been met as follows :— The steam plant includes three Lancashire boilers—there are two other boilers, one used for power purposes—30ft. by 7ft. 6in., flues 3ft. diameter, 6ft. grates, £in. shells, x\in. ends of Sneds-hill and mild steel, fin. flues with Adamson’s flanges, set with the draught going under the bottom and returning along the sides. From these a 6in. main steam pipe leads direct to the centre of the main building, where a receiver is fixed. From this all branches are taken through reducing valves. The plan of the building permits its division into four main parts. The distribution of the steam in the corridors and to the radiators on each floor is as follows :— To ensure the delivery of steam at all points, three pipes are employed, one 4in. supply and one 3in. return, both running in the same direction, and from the extremities a condensed water pipe is led back to a container in the basement, from which the water of condensation returns by gravity to the boilers to be re-used. *

The radiators are made of lin. wrought iron pipes fixed vertically in a hollow cast iron base with an entablature of ornamental design, and requiring no casing. The surface of each is about 25 square feet and the number 160 ; the positions having been selected with a view to the best diffusion of the heat.

in the risers of the seats for the circulation of air. The picture gallery has six radiators in it, three on each side. The surface is about 150ft. The dining hall has six of the cast iron radiators for which a medal was given at the Health Exhibition.

The library and museum have each eight circular radiators placed between the tables, and carrying upon the tops standards for lighting purposes. The music-rooms—twelve—are treated with a simple loop of fin. wrought iron pipe 24in. high. The lecture theatre has four radiators of same design as in the corridors. All available water of condensation is collected and returns to a tank in the boiler-house, from which it is pumped back to the boilers. The alignment of the pipes has been selected so as to cause the steam and water of condensation to flow in the same direction.

The steam power plant consists, as we have said, of Lancashire boilers,3Oft.by7ft.flues,2ft 9in. diameter; grates, 6ft. long; usual fittings; to work up to 75 lb. pressure. They have a separate chimney, and supply steam to the two electric light engines now fixed. These are coupled 16£in. cylinders, 32in. stroke, driving along shaft, from which the dynamos are run. The engines are fitted with Paxman’s automatic expansion gear. These boilers will also serve the laundry and a hauling engine, which will be employed to operate trucks upon a tramway laid in a subway from the stores to the main building about 300 yards.

The gas service is taken at present from Staines and Egham Gas Company through two coupled meters of 400 lights each, and conveyed by a 6in. pipe, afterwards reduced to 4in., around the building contouring the site. The building is treated in sections, and on the main elevations, each side being divided into four divisions each with 2in. branches. In the interior each section is treated separately. The students’ rooms—900—have gas laid on if required. All public rooms are lighted by a continuous system of sprays besides electric light.

The water supply is taken from the South-Western and Suburban Water Company by a 6in. pipe connection, and passes through a Kennedy meter. The whole building is contoured by a 6in. pipe. At the South Tower a valve chamber is arranged where a scour cock, relief and air valves are fixed. The water

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any given quantity of water to be discharged. The heads of the drains are ventilated by cast iron pipes, Sin. by 5in., carried above the roofs.

rises to a distributing tank at an elevation of 80ft., from which it flows by gravity to the service cisterns for the fire service. The quadrangles have each four double standpost hydrants, and internally the building is protected by a system of fire cocks every floor, thirty in all, being fixed on the half landings of the staircase. Externally, standpost hydrants are fixed at all objective points. The London Brigade gauge, 2|in., has been followed throughout.

6in., two such converge, and the main outlet is 9in. diameter.

Bath, lavatory, and sink wastes all discharge open end into a trapped gulley with grates. The soil pipes, 4in. diameter, are of on lead, fixed within the building; together with the wastes they

deliver into inspection chambers, bej ond which an interceptor PAckages Lost in PosT.-We have received during the past trap severs the connection with the mam drain, all pipes are wee)j tWo labels apparently from rolls of drawings or something ventilated.    The minor branches are 4in. diameter, and where    of the kind> judging from    the string attached, and both marked

discharging    into the 9in. main pipe 6in. branches are used.    wjth the Leeds post mark,    and as having been found in the West

The    drains    surround    the    building    in    straight    lines    from    Flush tanks    of 500 gallons capacity, built in brick and cement,    Central district without contents or attachment. The Post-office

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gradient. The snjes of pipes are for the first half of the distance syphons, Gin., are used, the outer case being adjustable to allow Perhaps the senders will communicate with us

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RAILWAY MATTERS.

Ae the Indian Government has still unexhausted powers to raise £7,000,000 for railway purposes, it is not the intention of the Government to proceed with the East India Railway—Loans— Bill.

About two-fifths of the African railway mileage is in the British colonies in South Africa, 29 per cent, is in the French colony of Algiers, and 23 per cent, in Egypt, all very near the north and south coasts.

A EIRE occurred on Monday night in the repairing shops of the Metropolitan Horse Railway in Boston, Mass. Eight persons are known to have perished in the flames, and others are missing. The fire is believed to have been the work of an incendiary.

A serious accident occurred on the 19th inst. on the London and South-Western Railway to a train from Oakbon to Swanage, at a place called Wongrett—more appropriately, perhaps, Wrongett —where the engine left the rails, and the carriages fell over an embankment.

A section of the Delogoa Bay Railway, from the port to the Lebombo range, was commenced on Monday by the Portuguese Government, in order to fulfil their engagement with the Transvaal Government, the contractors, it is said, having failed to commence the work.

During 1883 the total number of passengers carried by the French railways was 207,171,029—the total length of the railways of France being 22,092 kilometres, 13,697 miles. Of this number only 42 passengers were killed, and 279 injured; that is to say, one killed for every 4,993,399, and one injured for every 742,554.

The North London Tramway Company has now been running the “ Merryweather ” engines for twelve months past. Much has been said as to having 25 per cent, of engines in reserve, and experience may prove it necessary here as elsewhere. At present, however, on this line fourteen out of a total of fifteen engines are invariably running, and upon holidays and Sundays the whole of the engines are at work.

From a report on the collision which occurred on the 5th of April at Westland-row station, Dublin, on the Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford Railway, when in this case the mail train from Kingstown, due at Westland-row station soon after 6 a.m., instead of stopping, as usual, with the engine about 90 yards from the buffer-stops, it came into collision with the mail train due to leave at 6'28 a.m., which was also standing on No. 1 line, its engine being about 45 yards from the buffer-stops, appears to have been due to the insufficient or ineffective brake power, and perhaps to error as to speed and distance by the driver.

Next to France, the largest additions of railway mileage since 1880 have been made in Austria-Hungary—2096 miles, or 18'3 per cent.—closely followed by Germany with 2055 miles—9 per cent. More than half the total increase in Europe was in these three countries, but the rate of gain was greatest in Greece—1491 per cent.—due to adding to the seven miles from Athens to Piraeus 102 other miles. The European countries which need railroads most are probably the Danube provinces, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. That is, these countries have a capacity for production which new railroads would make it possible to utilise to advantage.

The opening of the new tramway line in the Straits Settlements took place on May 3rd, by the Governor. A dense crowd of natives lined the streets, and filled the windows all along the line of route. The trains consisted of four carriages and two engines, which were filled with the principal European residents, the Governor being in the carriage next the engine. At the terminus Mr. Shelford began the proceedings, and in the course of his remarks referred to the great change in the means of travelling that was inaugurated. The Governor reminded the visitors that there was in another part of the Settlement a railway, and predicted that before long, though those present might not live to see it completed, there would not only be a railway through the Peninsula, but a complete connection the whole way to British Burmah.

During the first three months of this year there were reported on our railways 16 collisions between passenger trains or parts of passenger trains, by which 1 passenger was killed, and 177 passengers and 13 servants were injured; 10 collisions between passenger trains and goods or mineral trains, &c., by which 1 servant was killed and 21 passengers and 3 servants were injured; 4 collisions between goods trains or parts of goods trains, by which 1 servant was killed and 9 were injured; 19 cases of passenger trains or parts of passenger trains leaving the rails, by which 7 passengers and 1 servant were injured; 2 cases of trains travelling in the wrong direction through points, by whioh 1 servant was injured; and 6 cases of trains running into stations or sidings at too high a speed, by which 30 passengers were injured.

The railway policy of Victoria seems to be justified by the results. A new line of railway, extending the St. James Branch from Benalla, on the North-Eastern line, to Yarrawonga, on the Murray, was officially opened on May 5th. The line is twenty miles long, and has cost £54,700 to construct. The contractor was Mr. Pallet, of Sandhurst. Mr. Nimmo, the Commissioner of Public Works, and Mr. Derham, Postmaster-General, represented the Government at the opening ceremony. At the opening Mr. Agg, one of the Railway Commissioners, quoted a number of figures with regard to the earnings of the Victorian Railway Department, and said that, for the first time in the history of Australia, that department was earning more than was sufficient to pay the whole of the interest on the Victorian Railway Loan Account.

The question of the Suram tunnel on the Transcaucasian Railway has been definitively settled. On June 5th the Council of the Empire decided in favour of opening a credit of a million roubles for the commencement of the works. 700,000 roubles will be placed at the disposal of the State department specially charged with the piercing of the tunnel, which is to be four versts in length, plus 13 versts of a newline turning the pass of Suram. The Transcaucasian Railway Company is to receive 300,000 roubles for the works of the remaining length of this new line. The whole of the works will cost, according to the estimates, more than 10,500,000 roubles, of which upwards of 7,000,000 roubles will be absorbed in cutting the tunnel, which will be in respect of length the most arduous operation of this kind that has been executed on any of the Russian railways, the tunnel on the Vladikavkas line being only 600 sagenes—1400 yards. The funds required for the works will be raised by an issue of new shares by the railway company bearing a Government guarantee.

On the subject of the recent unsuccessful endeavours of certain German capitalists and iron manufacturers to secure from the ■Chinese Government a contract for the construction of railways, the Vossische Zeitung says :—“A conference, in which representatives of the Deutsche Bank and the iron industry took part, has been held at the Discount Bank, and reports were presented from the delegates in China. From these it appears that a decision on the part of the Chinese Government as to the construction of the railways is not to be counted on with certainty until the Emperor attains his majority—that is, at the end of next year. The reports show, moreover, that the circumstances of the country are not at present of a character to justify the expectation, indulged in on many sides, that railways would be profitable. Besides this, English competition must be carefully borne in mind. In face of these reports, it was resolved to recall Herr Erich at once. Another of the three delegates will return in a short time, while the third will remain in China for the present.” The answer received by the deputation from the Viceroy at Tientsin is said to have been,—“ We will build railways when we are able to manufacture the material in our own country.” The reports candidly admit that the result of the mission to China is absolutely nil. The gigantic railway scheme, of which so much .has been said and written, proves to be a mere myth.

NOTES AND MEMORANDA.

An aero can be enclosed in a square 208'71ft. on each side, and a circular acre is 235|ft. in diameter.

In London last week 2476 births and 1277 deaths were registered. The annual death-rate per 1000 from all causes, which had declined in the 12 preceding weeks from 30'3 to 15'5, rose last week to 16T.

In Greater London last week 3277 births and 1541 deaths were registered, corresponding to annual rates of 32'2 and 15 '2 per 1000 of the population. In the outer ring 14 fatal cases of whooping-cough and 7 of measles were registered. The 17 deaths in Tottenham sub-district included 3 from measles and 3 from whooping-cough.

The deaths registered during the week ending June 12th in twenty-eight great towns of England and Wales corresponded to an annual rate of 17'4 per 1000 of their aggregate population, which is estimated at 9,093,817 persons in the middle of this year. The six healthiest places were Brighton, Cardiff, Birkenhead, Derby, Plymouth, and Salford. In Brighton the death rate as low as 9'0.

The petroleum wells in China occur in the province of Sse-tchouen, and are thus described by L’Abbe Hue :—“When a salt well has been dug to a depth of 1000ft. a bituminous oil is found in it that burns in water. Sometimes as many as four or five jars of 1000 lb. each are collected in a day. This oil is very feetid, but it is made use of to light the sheds in which are the wells, and the cauldrons of salt. The mandarins, by order of the prince, sometimes buy thousands of jars of it, in order to calcine rocks under water that render navigation perilous.”

The prevention of decay in wood is said to be effectually accomplished by exhausting the air from the pores and filling them with a gutta-percha solution, a substance which preserves the wood alike from moisture, water, and the action of the sun. The solution is made by mixing two-thirds of gutta-percha to one-third paraffine, this mixture being then heated to liquefy the guttapercha, when it is readily introduced into the pores of the wood, the effect of the gutta-percha being, when it becomes cool, to harden the pores. We are not told how the introduction is effected.

A paper was recently read before the Paris Academy of Sciences giving the results of researches on the densities of liquefied gases and of their saturated vapours by MM. L. Cailletet and Mathias. In this memoir the authors’ studies are limited to the protoxide of nitrogen, ethylene, and carbonic acid. It is shown that at the critical point the density of the fluid is equal to that of its vapour, whence a practical means of determining graphically the density at the critical point when the critical temperature is known. It is also shown that the expansion of the liquefied gas is greater than that of the gas itself. The methods here described are applicable to all gases whose critical point is higher than the freezing-point of mercury.

The total population of New York on April 1st was estimated at 1,428,898, and is believed to be increasing at the weekly rate of 799. The total number of deaths from all causes was 2965, about 99 each day, or 4'12 per hour. Comparing this with the same number of days in March, there was a reduction representing the saving of 290 lives, and this not taking into account an increase in the population of more than 3000. In March the largest number of persons succumbed to disease on the 31st, there being on that day 137 deaths recorded; on the 30th of April the maximum limit was reached, amounting to but 124 deaths. The deaths of children under five years of age during March were 1221, and in April but 1075.

In their report on the water supplied to London from the Thames during last month, Messrs. William Crookes, F.R.S., William Odling, F.R.S., and D. C. Meymott Tidy say:—“Notwithstanding the frequent stormy rainfall, the quality of the water supplied by the companies during the month of May maintained the excellent character which has now attached to it uninterruptedly for some time back. As regards the smallness of the proportion of organic matter met with in the water, the mean amount of organic carbon present in the Thames-derived supply for the month was T52 part, and the maximum amount in anyone sample T80 part in 100,000 parts of the water ; while the mean amount for the last three months was '155 part of organic carbon in 100,000 parts of the water, corresponding to less than three-tenths of a grain of organic matter per gallon.”

On MM. Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley’s recent experiments to ascertain the influence of motion of the medium on the velocity of light, in a paper recently read before the Paris Academy of Sciences by M. A. Cornu, the author briefly describes the American physicists’ experiments, which show that the result announced by Fizeau in 1851 is essentially correct, and that the luminiferous ether is entirely unaffected by the motion of the matter which it permeates. At the conclusion of the paper M. Fizeau took occasion to remark that he had never oeased to prosecute his studies on the nature and properties of the ether, and hoped soon to announce the existence of a peculiar variation in the magnetic force of magnets apparently in relation with the direction of the earth’s motion through space, and calculated to throw great light on the immobility of the ether and its relations to ponderable matter.

Some experiments on the dielectric capacity of gases at 0 deg. C. and 760 mm. have lately been made by Klemencic, who gives the following table. The corresponding table of refractive indices those determined by M. Mascart:—

y/ K(K=specific inductive capacity). .. 1-000293 ..    ..

Hydrogen..........

Carbonic acid........

Carbonic exide ......

Protoxide of nitrogen ..    ..

Ethyline..........

Sulphuret of carbon ..

Sulphurous acid ......

Ether............

Chlorethyle ........

Bromethyle ........

It can be seen that for the last four gases the square root of the specific inductive capacity is no longer comparable to the index of refraction.

The President of the Meteorological Society recently gave some interesting figures respecting the low temperature of last winter. From the commencement of January to the middle of March there was almost continuous frost, and during this period it froze for upwards of 60 nights at many places in the British Islands. At Great Berkhamsted the minimum temperature registered 32 deg. or below in January 22 days, February 23 days, March 18 days, making a total of 63 days between January 3rd and March 18th; whilst on the grass it froze for 73 consecutive nights, from January 5th to March 18th. The observations from 1845 do not show another instance of frost continuing for so long a period without interruption. The only instances of 20 or more oonsecutive days 24 days in 1858, from February 17th to Maroh 12th; 22 days in 1879, from November 20th to December 11th; 21 days in 1855, from January 14th to February 3rd; 21 days in 1878, from December 6th to December 26th. For the three months from January to March there are but few years since 1845 that have a period of continuous frost of one-half the length of that in 1886. The years with 15 days or more are respectively:—1886 (28), 1858 (24), 1855 (21), 1861 (19), 1881 (16). Taking the actual days with frost at Greenwich, irrespective of continuity, there was frost on 53 days in the present year, 1886, from January to March. In 1855 the number of frosts in the corresponding period was 58, but the only other instance of more than 50 days was in 1858, when the number was 53.

MISCELLANEA.

Thk memorial stone of the new bridge across the Thames at the Tower was laid on Monday by the Prince of Wales, attended by the Princess.

Three fires ocourred in flour mills last week, two of which were roller mills, and the damage estimated at £35,000. The causes are not in either case known.

The second of the three new Belgian mail packets, the Ville de Douvres, was successfully launched from the Cockerill Company’s shipyard at Antwerp on the 17th inst.

The annual general meeting of the Chesterfield and Midland Counties Institution of Engineers will be held in the lecture-room, Stephenson Memorial Hall, Chesterfield, to-morrow—Saturday, June 26th—at 2.45 p.m.

A BOILER, said to be over fifty tons in weight, was being raised by shear legs in the marine engine works of Messrs. Richardson and Sons, Hartlepool, on Friday last, when, it is said, they fell, and crushed to death the foreman of the labourers, named Levitt. The general manager, Mr. Wiley, was seriously injured.

The report of the Mansfeld copper and silver production for 1885 states the production of copper at 12,635 tons, against 12,773 tons in 1884. Of silver, 75,075 kilog. were produced, or 943 kilog. more than in 1884. The proceeds were 4,812,302 marks less than in the preceding year, 3,210,927 marks of the falling off being due to the lower price of copper. The loss is 653,338 marks. The receipts from all saleable products were 21,992,031 marks.

read,

Wave,” by Captain W. N. Greenwood. The object of this paper is to show how a little knowledge of weather forecasting, with some practical knowledge of local weather changes, and a good barometer, will go far towards forming a right correction for application to the predicted height of the tide, and also to determine what that correction should be in its relation to the fluctuations of the barometer and the prevailing gradient.

Mr. Brotherton, superintendent of the American smelter, at Lead ville, Colo., has, says an American contemporary, patented a plan for generating steam for motive power at the smelters, through the use of slag. By this method, the slag is dumped into large shallow vessels, which are afterward run under boilers, and the heat used in generating steam. An experimental test of the method resulted in maintaining 75 lb. pressure on a vertical boiler for seven days. If the plan proves practical, it will result in a saving to the smelter of 1200 dols. to 1500 dols. a month.

Under the patronage of the Grand Duke of Baden, and with the concurrence of the Grand-Ducal Government, the Industrial Society of Karlsruhe has organised an international exhibition of the manual arts and domestic economy, to remain open from August 15th to September 15th, 1886. The principal object of the Exhibition is to make known the best materiel and apparatus suitable for small industries, and to popularise their use, so that small motors, tools, and machine tools, whether, it is said, made in this country or abroad, and whether shown by manufacturers or dealers, will be welcomed.

At the Conference in the Colonial and Indian Exhibition on Wednesday, the 23rd inst., a paper was read by Mr. W. Lant Carpenter, on “The Position of Science in Colonial Education.” The Colonies to which Mr. Carpenter had directed his attention were—Canada generally; in South Africa, the Cape of Good Hope and Natal; Western and South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand, and Tasmania, the last of which, unfortunately, was not represented at the present Exhibition. An account of the present condition of scientific education in each of these Colonies was given.

An exhibition of apparatus and implements for the prevention of the diseases of the vine, and for destroying insects that infest it, has been held at Conegliano. The exhibitors were 197 in number, and of the 524 different machines, apparatus, and implements shown, 450 were connected with the application of milk of lime, the most effectual remedy for the disease called peronospora, the proportion being from 8 to 10 of slaked lime to 100 of water. Three gold medals, three silver with money prize of 150 francs, seven silver ones, and four bronze ones were awarded, and besides these, three special premiums were given by the local agricultural committee.

The Melbourne authorities some time since decided upon the adoption of cable tramways, and are now laying down an important series of lines in Melbourne on the cable system, involving an expenditure of about a million and a-half sterling. The wire cable for these lines are being manufactured at the works of Messrs. Bullivant and Co., Blackwall, whither a large party, composed chiefly of gentlemen from the Colonies, were conveyed by special steamer from Westminster last week to witness the process of cable manufacture. There are two ropes, one being 4340 fathoms, or nearly five miles, and the other 2459 fathoms, or over two and three-quarter miles, in length, and weighing respectively about 24 tons and 16 tons each. They are composed of a hemp core enclosed spirally by six wire strands, each strand consisting of thirty-one wires. Each rope is 3§in. in circumference, and has the high breaking strain of 150 tons per square inch of sectional area.

At the first of the conferences convened by the Geologists’ Association on “ The Mineral Resources of the Colonies and India,” held at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition on June 5th, a lecture was delivered by Professor V. Ball, F.R.S., on “The Mineral Resources of India and Burmah.” The discussion brought out the urgent need for reform of the mining laws of India, and the following resolution, proposed by the chairman—Sir R. Temple—seconded by the Duke of Manchester, was unanimously adopted :—“ This Conference, having had under its review the mineral resources of India and the obstacles to development and exploitation of the same through the want of suitable or sufficient mining laws, respectfully urges upon the Secretary of State for India the desirability of regulating or revising the regulations for the working of mines in British India, including Burmah, and for the protection of mining interests therein, and also of negotiating arrangements to the same effect with the Native States.” The second conference was held on Saturday, June 19th, when Professor T, Rupert Jones, F.R.S., lectured on “ The Mineral Resources of South Africa.” Sir Charles Mills presided.

The Admiralty has just ordered from Messrs. Willans and Robinson, of Thames Ditton, twenty-two sets of engines and dynamos, mounted upon Willans’ combination frames, for lighting cruising vessels of the smaller classes. Many ships of these classes have been fitted with but one set, for the purpose of “searchlighting ” only; and as in these the engine and dynamo are but occasionally used, the selection of the type of engine has not invariably been governed by considerations of steam economy. But in the eleven ships—viz., the Archer, Brisk, Cossack, Porpoise, Tartar, Mohawk, Fearless, Rattler, Wasp, Bramble, and Lizard—for which the twenty-two sets are intended, the internal lighting of the vessel is to be done by electricity as well as the search-lighting, and the Admiralty has determined that economy in steam consumption, and proved freedom from accident and trouble in continuous running, should govern the selection. The Willans engine, coupled in every case to a Siemens dynamo, has therefore been chosen, and it is believed that a consumption of less than 35 lb. of water per electrical horse-power is likely to be attained, even in these small sets. The dynamos are to give 100 amperes with 80 volts, some at a speed of 400 and some at 650 revolutions. Messrs. Willans and Robinson are also supplying seventeen combination sets with Crampton dynamos, for sea-going torpedo-boats. Including these, more than 100 Willans engines have been ordered by the Admiralty for electric lighting on board ship during the past fourteen months,

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June 25, 1886.

THE ENGINEER.

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FOREIGN AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF THE ENGINEER,

PARIS.—Madame Boyveau, Rue de la Banque.

BERLIN.—Asher and Co., 5, Unter den linden.

VIENNA.—Messrs. Gerold and Co., Booksellers.

LEIPSIC.—A. Twietmeyer, Bookseller.

NEW YORK.—The Willmer and Rogers News Company, 31, Beekman-street.

CONTENTS.

The Engineer, June 25th, 1886.

Screw Propeller Eeficiency. No. II............

The Durability of Iron and Steel Ships .........

Simon’s Three-high Roller Mill. (Illustrated.).......

Metallic Permanent Way. (Illustrated.) .........

The Manchester Ship Canal ...............

Barring Engine. (Illustrated.)...............

Paxman’s Vertical Boiler. (Illustrated.) .........

Radial Arm Drilling Machine. (Illustrated.).......

Heating and Ventilating in the Royal Holloway College

Railway Matters .....................

Notes and Memoranda...................

Miscellanea.........................

Metallic Sleepers, German Railways. (Illustrated.) ..    .

Leading Articles—The Nile and Trafalgar Controversy—The Prevention of Boiler Explosions

Aero-steam Engines—The Fatal Accident on the North-Western

Railway ..........................

A Large Reservoir - Man v. Machine—The Electric Lighting Bill

Abandoned—The Tower Bridge................

Literature............................

On Refrigerating and Ice-making Machinery and Appliances.

(Illustrated.) ..........................

Legal Intelligence ........................

Letters to the Editor-Forty-knot Ships—Feed-water Heaters .! 510 Boiler Explosions—Output of Pig Iron Launches and Trial Trips......

The Iron, Coal, and General Trades of Birmingham, Wolverhampton, AND OTHER DISTRICTS..................

Notes from Lancashire......................

Notes from the North of England................

Notes from Sheffield ......................

Paragraphs—The Institution of Civil Engineers, 499—An Address to Mr. Carbutt, M.P , 500—Packages Lost in Post, 502—King’s College Engineering Society, 513—Society of Engineers

PAGE

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Mi,

.. 511

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511

512

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513

513

513.

TO CORRESPONDENTS.

Registered Telegraphic Address—“ ENGINEER NEW8PAPER, LONDON.”

*** All letters intended for insertion in The Engineer, or containing questions, must be accompanied by the name and address of the writer, not necessarily for publication, but as a proof of good faith. No notice whatever will be taken of anonymous communications.

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*** In order to avoid trouble and confusion, we find it necessary to inform correspondents that letters of inquiry addressed to the public, and intended for insertion in this column, must, in all cases, be accompanied by a large envelope legibly directed by the writer to himself, and bearing a Id. postage stamp, in order that answers received by us may be forwarded to their destination. No notice will be taken of communications which do not comply with these instructions.

E. F. G.—The total number of miles at the end of 1885 was 811.

R. R. (Greenock).—The device sketched in your letter is old. It has long been used in the States for pumping engines.

C. A. H. (Manchester). — We repeal for the hundredth time that any one can write C. Ji. or M E. after his name without passing any examination.

W. F. (Leicester-street).—The number of The Engineer containing a working drawing of the Great Northern engine has been out of print for years.

we

GUMMING PAPER.

(To the Editor of The Engineer.)

Sir,—Can any of your readers kindly oblige me with the names of makers of machinery suitable for gumming the surface of paper in long rolls, English or foreign?    jp g.

Liverpool, June 22nd.    _

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THE ENGINEER.

JUNE 25, 1880.

THE NILE AND TRAFALGAR CONTROVERSY.

As far back as February last we discussed the extraordinary circumstances under which the Admiralty had proceeded to order the building of the Nile and the Trafalgar. T wo ships of war, larger than any hitherto existing in the British Navy, were thus about to be built,' at an enormous cost, although the present Director of Naval Construction demurred to the design, and his pre-

decessor still more emphatically objected to it. On what foundation could the Board be placing its expectations concerning these ships, seeing that the scientific advisers of the department withheld their approval from the enterprise¹? As we then explained, the ships might be very good specimens of naval architecture, and, from a certain point of view they might be worthy of approbation ; but the question at issue was not to be settled by considerations of that nature. The debateable point was whether the results would be commensurate with the expenditure, and whether the ships—good as they might be in themselves—would be as good as they ought to be. Since we wrote upon the subject, the question has been brought prominently before the public in the columns of the Times, and has been discussed at considerable length in Parliament. The views of the present Director of Naval Construction, Mr. W. H. White, have been made public, in the shape of an extract from a private letter, read in the House of Commons by Mr. Ilibbert. In that extract Mr. White, referring to the Nile and Trafalgar, said :—“ While I strongly felt the desirability of thorough and careful inquiry before they were begun, I am strongly of opinion that, having been begun, there should be no stopping of the work.” Thus at one time Mr. White desired that an inquiry should take place, and was even “strongly” convinced on the point. Sir N. Barnaby, in a letter addressed to the Times this week, expresses his opinion that if there had been an inquiry by “a good Committee,” the building of the Nile and Trafalgar would never have been undertaken. Sir Nathaniel further says he is confident that if a Committee were appointed now they would not be satisfied with a less change than a reversion to one of the abandoned double-citadel designs, having turrets far apart, and a long battery between them. It was for inquiry that Mr. Shaw-Lefevre pleaded, when moving in Committee of the whole House that the Navy Estimates should be reduced by the amount required in the current year for the building of the Nile and the Trafalgar. The sum in question was but £10,000, showing that the work was only just beginning. That the object in view was avowedly to obtain an inquiry has been denied, although that purpose was distinctly proclaimed by Mr. Shaw-Lefevre at the commencement of his speech and repeated farther on. Thus we find him saying:—“ It appeared to him that the true course for the Government to take was that the building of these two vessels should be suspended for a time, and the question as to the proper type of war vessels for the future should be referred again to a Committee similar to that which sat in 1871.” Mr. Shaw-Lefevre has again asserted his purpose in a letter to the Times, declaring his intention of bringing the subject again before the attention of the House, should he be a member of the new Parliament. If our readers will refer to our article in February last, they will see that we gave certain reasons in favour of the plan which is thus persistently advocated. There are sundry questions with regard to the Nile and the Trafalgar which require further light for their elucidation, and when the issues are so momentous there is the greater need for caution. If these proposed armour-clads had the full approval of Sir N. Barnaby and Mr. White, the case would be different. The opposition of the one and the halting approval of the other —if approval it can in any sense be called—naturally excite anxiety in the public mind ; and whatever may be the merits of the ships as designed, the aspect of affairs is certainly unfortunate.

This question of the armour-clads is rendered more pressing by the terms of Sir N. Barnaby’s letter which has just appeared. He denies that he has given “ some sort of qualified commendation ” to the designs of the Nile and Trafalgar. On the contrary, he says—“ I should like it to be understood that I think those two ships badly conceived as designs, and therefore wasteful of money.” This is saying rather more than might have been expected. Something less would be sufficient to justify a further consideration of the undertaking before carrying it out. We should rather have understood that the present objections were relative in their character, and that the two ships, while good in themselves, did not exemplify the most judicious application of the money they would cost. No doubt the designs are open to criticism, and grounds for disapproval may be alleged. Neither in guns, armour, nor speed will the Nile and Trafalgar reach the level which has been attained in other ships. How is it, then, that these ships are so large and cost so much 1 The most direct answer appears to have reference to the armour itself. This, while deficient in thickness, is characterised by extension, and embodies a concession to Sir E. Reed’s demand that the armoured portion shall keep the vessel afloat when the unarmoured ends are shot away. The result is that while the armour is less in thickness than that of the Inflexible, the total weight is such that it counterbalances the whole of the extra displacement possessed by the Nile and the Trafalgar, as compared with the Renown and Sanspareil. The facts are well put by a writer in the Times, who signs himself “ Dreadnought,” and who is evidently well qualified to deal with the subject. This authority also draws attention to the fact that in the Nile and Trafalgar there is a reduction of 50 per cent, in the proportion of weight given to steam machinery as compared with the Dreadnought. Hence the moderate speed calculated upon, falling nearly two knots below that actually attained by the Italia. On the whole, we may infer that it is the side armour of the Nile and her consort which lies at the root of the present controversy. While Sir N. Barnaby was leaving the Admiralty and Mr. White was coming, the naval men had their way, and, so to speak, stole a march on their scientific advisers. They have pleased themselves, and have so far pleased Sir E. Reed that the latter voted against the motion brought forward by Mr. Shaw-Lefevre. Unless severely damaged by a torpedo from beneath, the Nile and the Trafalgar will neither founder nor capsize so long as the armour remains intact. This is a sure point, and the merit ascribed to the ships will depend very much on the relative degree of importance attached to this quality. The naval men demand that the floating power

of the ship shall be made as secure as possible. The ship made safe in this respect, guns and steam power come next. Such appears to be the rationale of the Nile class.

The defence of this type of armour-clad has been vigorously taken up by a member of Parliament in a letter to the Times replying to “ Dreadnought,” and signed “ M. P.” This writer complains, in a decidedly angry tone, “ that any man, or set of men, should ever have been found in this country to palm off upon the Naval Service as ironclads a whole series of ships, every one of which depends for its existence upon its unarmoured parts.” We here see the gist of the quarrel, and it comes very much to a question of Sir E. Peed v. Sir N. Barnaby. The former is the champion of side armour, and is content to carry a heavy shield; while the latter seeks to lighten the load, and to develope the power of attack. But with regard to the Nile and Trafalgar, it is a curious circumstance that the armour will afford no protection to the men who are to work the rapid-firing and machine guns. This being so, there ought to have been provision for a large armament of that description, so as to compete successfully with fire from weapons of that particular class. But the space assigned for these small guns in the Nile and Trafalgar is less than in the Renown and Sanspareil. Perhaps the most awkward defect of all is that the heavy guns of the Nile will simply be of about 68 tons each. When we think of the Italia, with guns of 110 tons, the contrast is such that we wonder how the naval men are content with it. Some remarkable reasons have been given for proceeding rapidly with the Nile and Trafalgar. It is predicted that they will probably be the last of the big ironclads. Lord G. Hamilton has endorsed this doctrine, and it is a popular one. faith, in the case of Lord G. Hamilton and some others, is based on the expectation that by building these two big ships we shall make other nations despair of competing with us in that line. Like the sagacious “ coon ” of the American romance, they will come down. No doubt the Nile and Trafalgar, when complete, will add to the strength of England as a naval Power. But “Dreadnought” presents a dilemma when he compares the Renown and Sanspareil with the Nile and Trafalgar, and says, “ All four of them may be powerful ships, but both types cannot be right.” He suggests that in one or the other “ There must be want of economy and of fitness of means to ends.” This consideration is sufficiently serious, but the subject becomes more weighty still when studied after the manner of Sir N. Barnaby. ex-Director of Naval Construction boldly proclaims, “The question of side armour is ripe for settlement,” and then adds, “ Its day is over.” He defines the problem as immediately identifiedwith the relative value of side armour and “ internal armour.” He says, “internal armour, as distinguished from external or side armour, is more extensively employed than ever, with my full concurrence.” Sir Nathaniel looks upon the Nile and Trafalgar as a new point of departure in the history of the British Navy, and the change is one which he regards as a mistake. We are to hear more from the same pen, and the nation is now in the unfortunate predicament of having Sir E. Reed attacking one class of ships and Sir N. Barnaby attacking another. This conflict of opinion furnishes an argument in favour of inquiry, and to this the only valid objection is the inevitable delay. Two millions of money are involved in the project, and it is to be regretted that there should be any doubt as to the results. Parliament has decided that it is better to go on than to wait. But it is perfectly certain that we have not heard the last word on this subject.

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THE PREVENTION OF BOILER EXPLOSIONS.

The Stepney boiler explosion has once more directed attention to the present state of the law concerning the generation of steam. That the law, or at least its administration, is unsatisfactory few, we think, will refuse to admit—at least, few of those who know enough about the matter to be competent to pronounce a weighty opinion. Boiler explosions are, with the very rarest exceptions, strictly preventible; and it is but common sense to say that this being the case, those who use boilers ought to be answerable for their safety. Yet it appears to be the popular belief that when a boiler explodes no one is to blame ; very rarely indeed does a coroner’s jury bring in a verdict of manslaughter. When they do nothing comes of it. If the case is sent for trial, either the grand jury throws the bill out or the common jury refuses to convict. What, we may ask, is the reason for this ? The answer is that the men of whom juries are composed refuse to believe that boiler explosions are preventible ; they hold that there is something mysterious or occult about them, and that no one and nothing can prevent them. Unfortunately, the very conditions which accompany most explosions do much to foster this belief. It is difficult to persuade a man that corrosion causes the failure of a boiler if he is told at the same time that corrosion has been proceeding for a considerable time, and that the plates must have been reduced, say, to the thickness of eighth of an inch for months before the boiler blew up. An experienced master boiler-maker assured us once that corrosion could not cause a boiler to blow up, unless some other agency, the nature of which he did not understand, came in to help it; and he based his faith on an experience of dozens of boilers in so bad a condition that, to use his own words, “ if corrosion could cause an explosion, these boilers must have every one burst months before I saw them.” He held that a leak or leaks would be started, and that all the water would run out of them, so that the boiler could not be used, long before it became weak enough to give way explosively. Anyone who has had experience in the mining districts knows that plenty of boilers worked until the water cannot be kept in them; and they do not burst. These statements and facts, if unintelligently used, have great weight; and we confess that we have little hope that juries and judges will do their duty until the theories built on such facts as we have referred to are shown conclusively to be baseless. In the meantime a change in the ° ' "'Inch would have nothing to do with

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juries or judges, might effect a vast improvement; and it is to such a change in the law that attention should be persistently directed.

A correspondent has very aptly pointed out that the Government takes great care that machinery shall be fenced lest workmen should be injured, but Government takes no thought for the boilers which by their failure may wreck a great mill and slay a dozen people in a moment. Powder magazines and fireworks factories are carefully looked after; legislation regulates the sale of petroleum; railways and steamships are alike made the subjects of Government inspection, but stationary and portable land boilers receive no attention whatever, and the most ignorant, the most dishonest, or the most untrustworthy may lay a mine beneath our feet, and no one can ask a question or interfere in any way. A man may quest about among old metal brokers until he sees a wretched worn-out cast-off boiler, which he buys for a few pounds, takes away, and puts to work beneath a populous building. There is no one to say him nay. In a street in the East-end of London, a man, a sausage-maker, worked— he may now work, for what we know—a vertical engine and boiler of 12-horse power. The engine stood in the cellar. As 12-horse power was not needed for driving sausage machines, the rest of the power was let out to artisans who inhabited the other floors of the house. Stimulated by some cause, the nature of which we do not know, the sausage-maker set about having his boiler insured. The inspector sent to examine the boiler refused to recommend it for insurance. The sausage-maker was indignant, and complained, so the engineer to the insurance company paid a visit to the premises and inspected the boiler, which he found in such bad condition that he refused to have anything to do with it on any terms, and he gave the sausage-maker a very solemn warning, that if the boiler exploded he would be guilty of something very closely akin to murder. The sausage-maker laughed in his face, and went on working the boiler. The chances are all that if an explosion took place this man would have gone scot free. This is not an isolated case. There are hundreds quite similar in character, only the details are different, and the circumstance is a disgrace to our statute-book.

That legislation with regard to boilers has long been imperatively demanded is well known. The question is, What direction should legislation take ? There is the greatest possible danger that too much will be attempted by the framer of any Bill bearing on the steam boiler question, and this will suffice to ruin its chances. For example, any attempt to settle the thickness of boilers, the quality of plates, the method of construction, &c., would be fatal. That would be to copy from the Continent the worst practices of grandmotherly Governments. The law should have nothing to do with the proportions, dimensions, or construction of new boilers. But it should be made imperative that every boiler should be thoroughly inspected either by a Government official or some recognised boiler insurance or assurance company once a year; and that a record of the condition in which the boiler was found should be registered; and that a notice should be posted up in a public place on the premises where the boiler is situated to some such effect as, “ I certify that boiler No. 3 on these works is in good condition and fit to work at a pressure of 60 lb.—Signed, J. Smith, Government boiler inspector.” No penalty need be exacted for a breach of the law. That is to say, the owner of the boiler might refuse to have it inspected if he thought proper. Only in such a case it should be enacted that apart from the risk of being tried for manslaughter in case of an explosion, he should be made liable to pay heavy damages to the heirs of those killed, and to all persons injured; and the fact that he refused to have his boiler inspected should be regarded as prima facie evidence of criminality on the part of the owner. In all cases where new boilers are put down the inspector should have due notice and a copy of a certificate from the makers giving the dimensions, and stating that the boiler had been tested hydraulically to at least 80 per cent, more than the working pressure, and certifying that the boiler was safe for the pressure at which the valves were loaded. When old or second-hand boilers are put down, the inspector should make a thorough examination, and test by water pressure.

We do not assert that these are the best stipulations that a Bill for The Better Control of Steam Boilers should contain, but we believe that they would be sufficient to nearly, if not quite, abolish explosions, and they would be in no way oppressive or vexatious. No man could justly complain of having his boilers inspected once a year; but his workmen and neighbours would have very good cause indeed for complaint if such an examination were not carried out. If he object to Government interference, he can always avoid it by resorting to the simple expedient of insuring his boilers. The charges of the companies are extremely moderate—not much more, indeed, than will pay for the cost of adequate inspection. We fear that but little good will be done by writing as we have done; yet while such catastrophes as that which occurred at Stepney are fresh in the memory of our readers seems to be a suitable time for urging on them once again, as we have often done before, the necessity—the crying, urgent necessity—that something should be done. What that should be will never be settled unless some proposal is brought forward for discussion ; and no subject is more fit for discussion in our pages than this—How practically to prevent the explosion of boilers. We know that they can be prevented; we know that inspection, if acted on, will prevent them. The question is thus narrowed to this—How can boiler inspection be made compulsory with least interference with the individual liberty of steam users?

AERO-STEAM ENGINES.

In engineering science history repeats itself, and old friends constantly present themselves under new guises; in other words, the same thing, or nearly the same thing, is invented and re-invented over and over again. The title of this article will recall to the minds of not a few of our readers Mr. Warsop’s inventions, but it is not of these

we are about to speak. Mr. Warsop held that great benefits would be derived from pumping air into the boilers of non-condensing engines, and the system was tested on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway with results reported in our impression for Oct. 3rd, 1873. Much the same idea has recently been tested in the United States in the New York Navy-yard by engineers T. Zeller and G. P. Hunt, of the United States Navy, and an interesting account of these experiments has been written by Mr. B. F. Isherwood, and published in the last number of the “ Journal of the Franklin Institute.” The experiments wrere made in August, An old shop engine, with a cylinder 12in. in diameter and 2ft. 6in. stroke, was used for the purpose. To the back end of this engine was fitted tandem-wise an air-compressing pump with a cylinder 9in. diameter, and of course with the same stroke as the engine. The air from this pump was delivered into the valve chest of the engine and not into the boiler. The engine was employed to drive a fan, and the steam pressure being maintained constant at 60 lb., there was little chance of irregular running. The compressing pump was so arranged that the air could be discharged into the atmosphere or sent into the steam chest at pleasure. When working under the former condition no expenditure of energy was needed to run it, save the power required to overcome its friction. Various experiments were made, and the results obtained have been carefully tabulated. The result is, in one sentence, that it made no economical difference to the engine whether it did or did not work with compressed air as well as steam. “ An examination,” writes Mr. Isherwood, “ of the economic results shows that the total horse-power developed by the engine was obtained for exactly the same weight of feed-water consumed per hour, whether steam was used alone or in combination with air.”

The idea that economy can be gained by mixing air with steam rests on the circumstance that hot air engines must of necessity be more economical than steam engines, because the efficiency of any heat engine is represented by the

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terminal temperatures of the working fluid. Now, in the case of the air engine, we have the working fluid provided ready to our hand, but we have to make a working fluid for the steam engine at considerable cost, and then throw it away either into the atmosphere or into a condenser. The theory of inventors of aero-steam engines is, so to speak, to combine two systems, taking advantage on the one hand of the good working qualities of steam, such as its moderate temperature; and on the other hand, seizing the superior economy proper to the use of air instead of steam as a working fluid. In the experiments tried by the United States Government, however, it will be seen that the heat found in the air was taken from the steam, and so. far in one way represented a loss. The air was somewhat raised in temperature in the compressing pump, that is to say, it was elevated from 90 deg., the temperature in the engine-room, to 133 deg. in the reservoir of the pump. It is remarkable that no appreciable difference in the weight of water used could be detected; in other words, the whole of the work done in the compressing pump re-appeared in the steam cylinder. It is proper here to explain that this is not the only theory of the action of aero-steam engines. To another, and much more plausible explanation of the economy claimed for them, we shall refer in a moment. Mr. Isherwood very properly points out that in the Navy-yard engine the steam and air did not mix, the engine first getting steam and then air at each stroke.

“ When the facts are considered, that the air compressor delivers its compressed air into the valve chest against the valve chest pressure without interruption, excluding bloc whatever opposes the incoming air, and that only after the mass of air is withdrawn by the steam cylinder from the valve chest can steam enter the latter from the boiler, and that the time any single charge of air and steam remains in the valve chest is extremely limited— 0'6 second in experiment A and 0'5 second in experiment C—the very small chance for any mixture of importance can be easily comprehended; and as the same conditions exist for the cylinder in these respects as for the valve chest, there is just as little chance for mixture there. These experiments therefore were not and could not be made under the conditions necessary to show whether any economy of steam could be effected by the use of intimately mixed air and steam. The mixing, absolutely essential and by which alone any economic gain could be accomplished, was entirely wanting; and how any mixing is to be produced, unless by bulky and inconvenient mechanical methods, is difficult to conceive. If the valve chest contained a thorough mixture of the air and steam, then the total pressure therein would be composed in part of the steam pressure and in part of the air pressure, in proportion to their respective bulks at that pressure. With a thorough mixture of the air and steam, the temperature in the valve chest would be very different, and would be determined by the respective weights of air and steam multiplied by their respective temperatures, and by their respective specific heats per unit of weight, the sum of the final products being divided by the aggregate weight of the air and steam, the quotient would be the temperature in the valve chest.”

Mr. Isherwood says in another place that it is very difficult, if not quite impossible, to see how the air and steam could be efficiently mixed without complicated mechanical appliances. As a matter of fact, however, nothing is easier. Many years ago we carried out experiments extending over two days with the aero-steam system invented by Mr. Parker, now dead. The steam from the boiler entered a vertical pipe provided with small brass nozzles or jets. Immediately opposite this pipe, which we shall call A, stood another pipe, which we may call B, provided with a set of receiving cones, placed opposite and close to the jets. No other communication existed between the two pipes, and the whole of the steam from the boiler had to pass through the nozzles in A and jump right across the intervening space into B. In doing this it drew in a considerable volume of air, heating it and thoroughly mixing with it at the same time. Thero was little or no fall in pressure between the boiler and the engine. Our experiments were carried out at the works of Messrs. Powis, James, and Co., Lambeth. The experiments each lasted an entire day — first without air and then with it; and as in the case reported by Mr. Isherwood, the consumption of fuel per indicated horse-power per hour was practically the same on both days. It seems curious that our experience and that of the American engineers’ should be the same, the air being used under such different conditions of mixture with the steam in the two cases.

We have said above that there is another reason than that which we have given for assuming that economy would ensue from the use of a mixture of air and steam, and Mr. Isherwood has done good service in calling attention to Professor Osborne Reynolds little-known statements on this point. In 1874, in a work seldom read by engineers-—to wit, the “Philosophical Magazine ”—Professor Osborne Reynolds arrives at the conclusion that when air is mixed with steam it tends powerfully to prevent condensation, by keeping the steam out of contact with the metallic surfaces of the cylinder or condenser. We reproduce his deductions:—

“(1) That a small quantity of air in steam does very much retard its condensation upon a cold surface; that, in fact, there is no limit to the rate at which pure steam will condense but the power of the surface to carry off the heat. (2) That the rate of condensation diminishes rapidly and nearly uniformly as the pressure of air increases from 2 to 10 per cent, that of the steam, and then less and less rapidly until 30 per cent, is reached, after which the rate of condensation remains nearly constant. (3) That in consequence of this effect of air the necessary size of a surface condenser for a steam engine increases very rapidly with the quantity of air allowed to be present within it. (4) That by mixing air with the steam before it is used, the condensation at the surface of a cylinder may be greatly diminished, and consequently the efficiency of the engine increased. (5) That the maximum effect, or nearly so, will be obtained when the pressure of the air is one-tenth that of the steam, or when about 2 cubic feet of air at the pressure of the atmosphere and the temperature 60 deg. Fah. are mixed with each pound of steam. As the investigation was nearly completed, my attention was called to a statement by Sir W. Armstrong, to the effect that Mr. Siemens had suggested as an explanation of the otherwise anomalous advantage of forcing air into the boiler of a steam engine, that the air may prevent, in a great measure, the condensation at the surface of the cylinder. It would thus seem that Mr. Siemens has already suggested the probability of the fact which is proved in this investigation. I am not aware, however, that any previous experiments have been made on the subject, and therefore I offer these results as an independent testimony of the correctness of Mr. Siemens’ views as well as of my own.”

Mr. Isherwood dwells at some length on the advantage which may perhaps be derived in this way from the use of air, and he cites numerous examples to show that air is found in most steam engines when at work, and that it always does good. Cylinder condensation is such a fruitful source of evil that any suggestion for mitigating it is worth consideration. Quoting from his own experience in bygone days, Mr. Isherwood writes: — “In the working of surface condensing engines, particularly of those in which steam of very low pressure was used with a high measure of expansion and an excellent vacuum—from 26-^in. to 27^in. of mercury—the observation has been made that oftentimes the condensation of the steam in the cylinder was so great as to produce a slapping noise whenever the piston came to the end of its stroke, and that the cylinder relief valves in this case had to be in constant use for the discharge of this water of condensation; but when enough air was allowed to leak into the condenser to reduce the vacuum to 23in. or 24in, of mercury, this cylinder condensation was so much decreased that the slapping noise ceased and the relief valves needed not to be used.”

Here for the moment we leave the question. We commend Mr. Isherwood’s complete paper to all engineers who take an interest in steam engine economy.

THE FATAL ACCIDENT ON THE NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY.

A report to the Board of Trade on the double collision that occurred on the 5th instant on the London and North-Western Railway at New-street station, Birmingham, and again on the rising incline at the south side of the station, has been made by Colonel F. H. Rich. It will be remembered that in this case the express train due to leave Wolverhampton at 1.35 p.m. for London broke loose from the engine and tender while it was travelling between Dudley Port junction station and Birmingham. The train first ran against the tender at the south end of New-street station, and it struck it again about 730 yards south of the station, when the engine was brought 'to a stand on the rising gradient of 1 in 60. One passenger jumped on to the platform as the train was running through the station at a speed of 25 to 30 miles an hour. He died six days afterwards from the injuries that he received; and twenty-one passengers that were in the train received cuts, shakes, and bruises. Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., was, it is stated, on the platform waiting for the train. The train consisted of an engine and tender, a brake van with a guard, a third-class carriage, a composite carriage, a second composite carriage with a brake compartment, a third composite, and then a fourth composite carriage with a brake compartment, in which a second guard wras travelling, and two horse-boxes at the tail of the train. The vehicles were coupled together in the order in which they are given. The engine and tender were fitted with steam and vacuum brakes, and all the coaches were fitted with the vacuum brake, which was arranged to act automatically on the leading van and on the two composite carriages of the train that had brake compartments. The tender, guard’s van, and two brake compartments were also fitted with common screw brakes. The steam and vacuum brakes were actuated from the engine by the same lever, and they could be applied separately or together, according to the position to which the lever was pushed. This is another accident to be added to the many on the North-Western which in their effects are entirely due t.o the inefficient brakes employed by

MAN V. MACHINE.

Man is being slowly but steadily elbowed out of the labour field by machine. A contrivance has recently been produced by which even cold chisels can be forged without man having more to do with the work than superintend. The beauty of a machine is that it never tires, never strikes against long hours, or for larger wages, keeps sober, and is always on the spot when wanted. Once more, in another speciality where the skilled eye and the delicate touch of the human hand were considered indispensable, the artisan no longer holds the field. A controversy is going on in the Sheffield newspapers respecting the merits of hand versus machine-cut files. A firm had twelve 12in. hand bastard safe edge files made out of the 3ame material. Six were cut by hand on their premises and six were sent out to be machine-cut. The files were stamped 1 to 12, no other mark being put upon them. Six of these files were handed to one foreman to use, and six to another, half of each six being machine-cut. The results of the trials have been published by the firm whose object, they state, “ is to ask those of your—Sheffield Daily Telegraph—readers who profess great acquaintance with the subject to say which are the machine-cut files.” The machine has made so good a show against man that the puzzle is to tell which is which in the work done, or the state of the article operated upon in any of the tests; but the general drift of the article on the experiments seems to be that in file-cutting the machine beats the man.

THE ELECTRIC LIGHTING BILL ABANDONED.

After all, it seems that the Electric Lighting Act Amendment Bill, which a Select Committee of the House of Lords approved, and which the House passed through the Committee stage in the House itself, as described a week ago, has come to grief. When it was brought up to be formally reported, with the small amendments which the House had made, Lord Houghton, its author, proposed to insert the following as a new clause at the beginning of the Bill:—“ Notwithstanding anything contained in the Electric Lighting Act (1882), no Provisional Order authorising the supply of electricity by any undertakers within the district of any local authority shall be granted by the Board of Trade, except with the consent of such local authority, unless the Board of Trade, in any case in which the consent of such local authority is refused, are of opinion that, having regard to all the circumstances of the case, such consent ought to be dispensed with, and in such case they shall make a special report stating the grounds upon which they have dispensed with such consent.” Lord Bury resisted this proviso as objectionable and as unjustifiable, seeing that the Select Committee had already rejected it; but, on the contrary, the Earl of Camperdown, chairman of the Select Committee, supported it. In the end, however, the clause was rejected, 37 peers voting against it, and only 24 for it; and Lord Houghton then announced that when the third reading of the Bill was proposed he should move to withdraw the Bill.

THE TOWER BRIDGE?

As is generally known, the Prince of Wales laid the memorial stone of the bridge which is to be built over the Thames near the Tower, with towers and piers, from the fantastic designs of Mr. Horace Jones, and from the engineering designs, as far as the real bridge is concerned, of Mr. J. Wolfe Barry, M.I.C.E., on Monday last. As is also generally known, the City Council-

members. In very many cases the reverse is true. On p. 14 the author, in stating that the upper boom forms “ one great compression member as long as the bridge,” forgets that the thrust varies all along that member, being nil at its outer ends. On page 15 the term “ strain” is used for “ working stress per square unit.” Further on in his book, Mr. Bender cites the fall of the girders near the Denmark-hill station of the London, Brighton, and South Coast Bail way as an instance of the gradual decrease in the strength of metal. But was not this accident due to other causes If we remember rightly, the casualty was all of a piece with the initial subsidence of the abutting earthwork; and we also seem to recollect that Colonel Yolland, with that peculiar felicity and expertness of the Bailway Department of the Board of Trade in discovering imaginary causes of failure and scientific mares’ nests, attributed the collapse to the ill-advised use of cast iron as a material of construction.

The comparison on page 37 between the Bollmann and Neville trusses is scarcely fair, seeing that the author contrasts a Bollmann truss with an infinite number of panels with a Neville truss of only fourteen panels; hence the comparison is drawn favourably for the Neville truss, because in all cases the scale of economy is the inverse of the number of panels in a given length. The expression for the depth of the truss in the minimum strain-length on page 42 is, by an atrocious slip, altogether upset. It should read—

instead of—

see

the company, brakes not fulfilling the rules of the Board of Trade. This was a case, which more than almost any that have happened, gave continuous brakes an opportunity of showing their value in saving lives. The brake, however, which the North-Western Company still persists in using against the rules of the Board of Trade, failed, as this company’s brakes have so often done, in the time of need; and worse, it proved fatally deceptive to the driver, who relied upon its doing its work. The lives of the people in the train were in more danger than they would have been if the train had been without any brakes. Colonel Rich says:—“ If the driver had not relied on the automatic brakes, which were fitted to three vehicles of the train, it would not have been difficult for him to check the speed of his engine, and thus have allowed the train to overtake it, before entering the tunnel at the north side of Birmingham station, and without causing any shock which was likely to injure the passengers. The many collisions that have occurred on the London and North-Western Railway, in past years, from defective brake-power, should convince the directors of the insufficiency and inferiority of their various systems, and induce them to adopt, at once, one of the systems that fulfil the requirements of the Board of Trade, and which all the other large railway companies in the kingdom have adopted, or are adopting. If the express had been fitted with a good continuous automatic brake, and that it had been in good order, the train would have been stopped long before it entered the first tunnel. The guards should be able to apply the continuous brakes, but they should not have the power of taking them off. The regulation of the London and North-Western Railway which requires them to do this, in certain cases, is wrong, and was proved to be so in the present case. The company’s servants who were in charge of the train, as well as those in the signal cabins, appear to have been on the alert, and to have done their duty according to their instructions, and these collisions are to be attributed to a defective pin and to defective brakes, combined with defective regulations.”

A LARGE RESERVOIR.

A large reservoir for the water supply of Yorke’s Peninsula is being constructed in South Australia by Mr. R. L. Mestayer. The source of the water is chiefly the Beetalo springs near the centre of the Wirrabara Forest Reserve, and about ten miles north-west of Gladstone. The rainfall of this district has not been recorded for a sufficient time to afford trustworthy data, but at the Wirrabara Nursery, ten miles northward, 30'220in. was recorded in 1883 and 34‘290in. in 1884; last year, however, there was not much over 16in. of rain. The catchment area contributing to fill the reservoir will be considerably over 5000 acres, and as the hills are steep on this part of the reserve it is expected that the reservoir will soon fill and remain filled. The reservoir is about 88 acres in extent, with an average depth of about 60ft., a width of about 700ft., and a capacity of 700,000,000 gallons. The cost of the works, services included, was originally estimated at £250,000; but Mr. Mestayer now thinks that it will not exceed £200,000. A weir in connection with the work is being constructed, and will be 105ft. high, with a width of 85ft. at the base and of 14ft. on the top. The length of the wall will be 560ft. at top. There will be over sixty miles of main pipe laid to Kadina from Beetaloo. The capacity of reservoir is 700,000,000 gallons. The length is 1^ miles. The following are further particulars:—Width at bottom of dam of the reservoir is 82ft.; radius of curve of dam, 1323ft.; length of dam at top, 560ft.; masonry in dam, if 105ft. high, 33,000 cubic yards; area of land to be reserved for reservoir, including roads, 666a. 3r. 2p.; total length of mains, 67£ miles.

men have for years prevented the demand for a bridge from being acceded. The inconsistency by which really good bridge projects have been rejected by these councilmen is only exceeded by the nonsense of the address to the Prince, which, after all these years of refusal to let the people have the desired river crossing of any sort, spoke of “an occasion so interesting, and in its objects so important to the commercial interest of this vast metropolis.” Ignoring the way in which the urgent wants of the trading community have been ruthlessly thrust aside, the address went on to say—“ The Corporation of London has possessed for centuries estates charged with the maintenance of London Bridge,” and that “ by the careful husbanding and management of the estates the Corporation has been enabled during the present century to rebuild, entirely free of cost to the ratepayers, London Bridge and Blackfriars Bridge, and to purchase and free from toll Southwark Bridge.” And, oblivious of the good projects for bridges which the Corporation, so very desirous of the welfare of the community, had crushed, it goes on to say that “ in the session of 1885 the committee successfully promoted a Bill in Parliament authorising the construction of a bridgeand with something very like impudence, considering what has gone before, it is urged that the completion of this bridge of medieval craziness of exterior “ within the space of four years, at a cost of £750,000, will supply a paramount need that has been sorely felt by dwellers and workers on the north and south sides of the Thames below London Bridge, and at the same time will greatly relieve the congested traffic across that ancient and famous thoroughfare,” Acknowledgment of paramount need sorely felt comes badly after 25 years’ opposition.

LITERATURE!.

The Principles of Economy in the Design of Metallic Bridges.

By Charles B. Bender. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

London: Triibner and Co. 1885.

The object of this work is to compare and investigate the different types of metallic bridges, in order to discover those forms which, for a given volume or weight of material, afford a maximum of strength. Throughout this investigation the author employs what he terms “ the strain-length ”—a theoretical quantity, proportional to the products obtained by multiplying the maximum strain of each member by its length. The use of the “strain-length” as an instrument by which to gauge the economy of any particular form of bridge is very common with French and German engineers; but it necessarily presupposes a knowledge of mathematical analysis, concerning which the author remarks in his preface:—“Though I agree with the majority of American engineers that the abuse of mathematical analysis—for instance, its application to the problems of earth pressure, or of the best forms and dimensions of rails, or of the strength of buckle plates covered with ballast or gravel, and to similar problems— should not be continued, I nevertheless think that without the assistance of the queen of sciences the profession would soon arrive at exhaustion and would lose its proud position.”

From this passage, as well as from the extensive application of mathematical analysis in his book, it will be gathered that Mr. Bender admits the beneficial influence of mathematical methods upon the progress and development of modern science. But at the same time he is careful to make a distinction and draw a line, beyond which he would entirely forbid the use of mathematical analysis. But may we not ask, if mathematical lore is useful, and common sense at a loss, in the more elementary stages of engineering work ; is it likely that the former will lead us astray, and the latter suddenly recover its lost vision, in the more abstruse and recondite divisions of labour 1 The truth is, that theory and practice, which are perfectly reconcileable, should go hand in hand; the danger, that men should advocate one solely to the exclusion of the other. On this account it seems strange to find Mr. Bender objecting to mathematical solutions of such ordinary problems as earth pressure, the best form and dimensions of rails, and at the same time treating us to a whole chapter on “ The Theory of a Loaded Elastic Beam,” in which he plays a very high game with a differential equation of the fourth order. With regard to the best form and dimension of rails, the writer recently worked out in graphic form the ellipses of inertia and central nuclei of stress of the three classic rail types, namely, the Yignole, the double-headed, and the bull-headed sectional forms. These diagrams at once commended themselves to the minds of practical engineers, for they showed at a glance that the relative economy of the bull-head type was only half that of the Yignole, or double-headed form. Yet, in spite of their simplicity of interpretation, these diagrams depend upon geometrical investigations of a very high order.

The several truss types brought together and compared in this treatise are the Bollmann, the Neville, the Whipple, and the bowstring. There are also chapters on the continuous girder, the cantilever, the arch, and the suspension bridge. Taken as a whole, it may be fairly said that the work is well done and worthy of hearty commendation. If it has one good feature more salient than another, it is the perfectly unique character of method and treatment. One single principle runs through and colours the whole text, namely, the less the strain length, the greater the economy. In its uniqueness of method the book has only one rival, to wit, Zeuner’s treatise on valve gears, in which the polar diagram does duty on all occasions and for all purposes. Here and there the author is somewhat difficult to follow, because he is apt to leave the reader to work out the mathematical demonstrations for himself. In order to test the general accuracy of the book, we have taken the trouble to check the author’s results in a number of instances, and have invariably found them correct. It may be said there are no flagrant errors. Occasionally, however, we have come across doubtful statements and manifest slips. On page 12, for instance, the author would seem to imply that members in compression are always stronger than those in tension. Now, although the pure crushing may be greater than the ultimate tensional working stress of a given material, it would be unfair straightway to infer that, universally speaking, compressional were stronger per sc than tensional

h = dy

k - v r

The results, however, are correct, and have evidently been calculated by the right formula; but a slip of this kind in fundamental matter, without any other index in the page to guide the reader, is dangerous and apt to mislead.

We regret to find Mr. Bender denouncing in very positive terms all types of continuous girders, chiefly because of the yielding of the piers, the need of good design and manufacture, and the fact that the theory of their construction presupposes the modulus of the elasticity of the material to be uniform and constant. Now, it is impossible to accept this opinion or the reasons advanced in its support, for continuous girders should never be built except over very solid foundations, where the settling of the pier is slight and insignificant; then the question of good workmanship applies equally and impartially to all bridge types. Thirdly, the author is behind the age in one particular point, if he really believes it impracticable to take account of varyingmoduli of elasticity in continuous girders.

In the chapters upon cantilever types, the author expresses the following unqualified opinion upon the merits of the Forth Bridge, of which he gives two drawings, one showing the original, the other the modified design. “ In consideration of the use of steel and the huge dimensions of the structure, weighing 13\ tons per lineal foot at the towers, and considering the length of the panels, the fantastical irregularity of the form, the mixture of hollow, round, and open sections, variable in diameters, engineers who have practically learned how to design working details of bridge work will doubt very much whether reliable rivetted connection can be executed, more especially at tensile joints.”

Mr. Bender also quotes from a paper by Mr. Baker, one of the engineers of the Forth Bridge, in which it would appear that the latter has committed himself to the opinion “ that the size of a bridge is very commonly the popular standard by which the eminence of its engineer is measured”—of which very pronounced opinion Mr. Bender does not fail to take advantage; but his remarks are a little sarcastic, and therefore somewhat vague. The inference, however, is that, in Mr. Bender’s mind at least, the size, apart from the other qualities of a bridge, is not a fair measure of the scientific ability of its engineer or engineers.

In another part of his book, and by way of comparison, the author estimates the total weight of a 1700ft. cantilever span to be 17,871 tons, and, further on, the total weight of a cantilever arch bridge, comprising two 1700ft. spans, 1800ft. viaduct, towers, and anchorage, at 24,600 tons, as against 42,000 tons of steel for the Forth Bridge.

These statements of Mr. Bender rely upon long calculations, which would take some considerable time to verify, and upon which, therefore, we cannot presume to offer a very definite opinion. So far as we have tested the results in the earlier part of the book, they appear to be perfectly accurate and trustworthy.

Weekly Problem Papers with Notes. By Rev. J. Milne, M.A.

Macmillan and Co. 1885.

This is a book of problems, collected from various sources and published in pocket-book size. We fail to that it differs in any particular, save the convenience of arrangement and portability, from the numerous other books of a. similar kind already in the market. Cambridge mathematicians have yet to learn that in this age of progress, swiftness, and dispatch, the shortest solution of a problem is the best. The fantastic solutions of very simple problems occasionally supplied by very erudite and profound Cambridge men remind us very forcibly of that famous discussion in the middle ages as to how many angels could dance upon the point of a needle.

Take for instance the problem on page 87 of the present book “ The angles subtended by a hill at the base and summit of a tower of height a are respectively a and Prove that the height of the hill is given by the equation— x*. cos. a. sin. (fi — a) - a x. sin. ⁴ a. sin. 0 -fa⁴, sin. ⁴ a. sin. $ = o.

Now any grammar-school boy, with an elementary knowledge of geometry, could solve this problem graphically by drawing or projecting a pair of lines from both the base and summit of the tower. The drawing of these four lines would take him just four seconds, whereas it would exhaust the patience of Job to wait whilst the boy worked out the analytic conglomeration given above.

IS

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cXPAN SION

ilON

EX F. ANSI CyLind

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ON REFRIGERATING AND ICE-MAKING MACHINERY AND APPLIANCES.

By Mr. T. B. LlGHTFOOT.

(Continued from page 394.)

3.—Machinery by which a Gas is Compressed, partially Cooled while under compression, and further Cooled

BY SUBSEQUENT EXPANSION.

This subject having been dealt with in a paper on “ Machines for producing Cold Air ” which the author had the honour to read before the members of this Institution in January, 1881, the remarks under this head will therefore to a large extent be supplementary to that paper, and will refer chiefly to improvements which have been effected since that date. It will be convenient, however, and will tend to a better appreciation of the subject, to present concisely some brief considerations respecting the physical laws relating to this system of refrigeration, even at the risk of repeating part of the matter touched upon in the previous paper.

The intrinsic energy of a permanent gas, or its capacity for performing work, depends entirely upon its temperature. Increase of pressure imparts no additional energy, but merely places the gas in such a condition relatively to some other pressure as to enable advantage to be taken of its intrinsic energy by expansion. Thus a pound of air at ordinary atmospheric pressure has the same intrinsic energy as a pound of air at 501b. pressure above the atmosphere so long as their temperatures are the same; but in the former case no part of the energy can be made use of by expansion without the removal of at least a part of the equal and opposite resistance of the atmosphere, while in the latter case expansion can take place freely until the pressure is reduced to that of the atmosphere. As mechanical work and heat are mutually convertible, it is obvious, that, if during expansion a gas is caused to perform work on a piston, its supply of heat must be drawn on to extent measured by the thermal equivalent of the work done, provided no extraneous source of heat exists from which the deficiency can be made good; and the gas after expansion will be colder than it was before expansion. Expansion behind a piston without the addition of heat from any extraneous source is called adiabatic expansion; and the following are the relations between temperature, volume, and pressure for any two points in the same adiabatic curve

an

7-1

7~1

where t and v and p denote absolute temperature, volume, and absolute pressure before expansion, and tj V\ p\ those after expansion, while 7 is the ratio of the specific heat under constant pressure to that with constant volume. The results with regard to the expansion of dry air are shown graphically by the curve E F in Fig. 17; E D represents the initial volume at a pressure of 50 lb.

Fig 17

354°

70°

LQS

.AO

the expansion cylinder in a moist or damp state, and in consequence common to both cylinders. In this way the coldest part of the be unfitted for use in the preservation of perishable food and for expansion cylinder is removed from the hottest part of the comother purposes. But no such state could really exist; for whether pressor. The air valves, shown in the section, are circular slides the air be specially “ dried ” or not, its humidity when delivered of phosphor bronze, actuated by excentrics in the usual way. This from the expansion cylinder is precisely the same, so long as its kind of valve enables the ports to be made very short and direct; temperature and pressure remain the same, inasmuch as in practice and besides being noiseless in action, it allows of a high piston-speed it is always in a saturated condition for that pressure and tempera- being attained. No trouble has been experienced with regard to ture. The difference lies in the amount of ice formed, which of wear, not a single case having occurred in which the valves have course is greater if the amount of moisture entering the expansion had to be replaced, notwithstanding that some have been in almost cylinder is greater; but this quantity, as has been already stated, constant work since 1882. The air enters the compressor by the may in the author’s opinion be brought down within perfectly con- pipes A, and after being compressed passes by the pipe C to the venient limits by a proper construction of the cooling vessels. In his coolers D D, which are placed in the bedplate, and consist of a latest machines therefore all special drying apparatus has been dis- couple of iron vessels containing clusters of solid-drawn Muntz pensed with; the air being simply compressed, passed through a sur- metal tubes of qin. external diameter. Water is circulated through face cooler, and expanded back to atmospheric pressure. On the the inside of the tubes by the pump E, the supply passing in by other hand, Messrs. Haslam and Co., and Messrs. Hall apply an the pipe F, through the tubes, and away by the pipe G to the interchanger on somewhat the same principle as that previously compressor jacket, whence it escapes by the pipe H. The water described in connection with the Bell-Coleman machine—“Proceed- condensed and deposited from the air in the coolers is blown off ings,” 1881, page 111—and it would be interesting if some definite from time to time by means of drain cocks, or may be discharged particulars could be furnished to show what practical effect this automatically. The compressed air passes through one cooler and interchanger really has.    returns through the second, being cooled to within some 5 deg. or

Messrs. Hall’s cold-air machine is of both horizontal and vertical 6 deg. of the initial temperature of the cooling water, which circu-type, the later applying to the smaller sizes. In either case, when lates in a direction opposed to that of the air. The quantity of combined with a steam engine, it consists of three double-acting water required is at the rate of from 30 to 40 gallons for every cylinders placed side by side, at the end of a frame or bedplate; 1000 cubic feet of cold air discharged at atmospheric pressure, that the cylinders are furnished with the usual moving parts, and the is, from three to four times the weight of the air; but the quantity connecting-rods work on three crank pins on a common crank varies in different machines according to the efficiency of the ap-shaft. One of the cylinders is used with steam in the ordinary paratus. From the coolers the air passes by the pipe I to the expan-manner, for giving the requisite motive power. Of the two sion cylinder J; and after performing work upon the piston, and others, one is for compressing and one for expanding the air. The returning about 60 per cent, of the power expended in its com-

Fig 19

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per square inch above the atmosphere and at a temperature of 70 deg. Fah., which is expanded down to the volume F B at atmospheric pressure, the temperature falling to - 115 deg. Fah.; the fall of 185 deg. being due to the performance of the mechanical work represented by the area E F I K. During adiabatic compression, the converse results take place, and the same relations exist between absolute temperature, volume, and absolute pressure, as during expansion:    vY p] denoting those

before compression, and tvp those after compression. On the diagram this is shown graphically by the curve A C, which is an adiabatic for the compression of the initial volume A B at atmospheric pressure and 70deg. Fah., up to 501b. per square inch above the atmosphere, the temperature rising to 354deg. Fah.; the rise of 284 deg. resulting from the acquirement of heat due to the performance of the mechanical work represented by the area AG JC. A E is the line of isothermal compression and expansion between the two points A and E. In the succeeding remarks reference will be made to the use of ordinary atmospheric air alone; for although in one or two special instances this class of machinery has been applied to the cooling of some of the more volatile hydrocarbons, its almost universal application at the present time is for the cooling of air, which therefore will alone be dealt with. The amount of aqueous vapour present in the atmosphere varies from that required to produce saturation down to about one-fifth of that quantity. At any given temperature a volume of saturated air can contain only one definite amount of vapour in solution; and if from any cause additional moisture be present, it cannot exist as vapour, but appears as water in the form of fog or mist. The temperature of saturation, or the dew point, varies according to the quantity of vapour in solution : the smaller the quantity, the lower ‘ the dew point. The capacity of air for holding moisture is also affected by pressure; a diminution in volume under constant temperature reduces this capacity in direct proportion.* In the former paper reference was made to various means that had been devised for ridding the air more or less completely of its contained moisture, in order to obviate as much as possible the practical evils resulting from its condensation and freezing; this being at that time considered one of the most important points in the construction of cold-air machinery. Since then, however, experience has demonstrated that these evils were much exaggerated, and that the condensation of the vapour and deposition of the moisture in the ordinary cooling process after compression, which is common to every cold-air machine, are amply sufficient to prevent any serious deposition of ice about the valves and in the air passages: provided, firstly, that these valves and passages are well proportioned, and secondly, that proper means are adopted for obtaining in the coolers a deposition of the condensed vapour, which would otherwise pass with the air into the expansion cylinder in the form of fog, and become converted into ice. Deference to the table shows that, if the compressed air be thoroughly deprived of its mechanically supended moisture, the amount of vapour entering the expansion cylinder is extremely small. Another matter from which the mystery has now been dispelled is the meaning of the term “ dry ” air, so much used by the makers of cold-air machinery; this is a point that was just touched upon towards the close of the discussion upon the previous paper. No doubt it is still to a large extent popularly supposed that, unless the air be subjected in the machine to some special drying process, it will be delivered from

* For the quantity of vapour necessary to produce saturation, reference may be made to the table and formula given in the appendix to the paper on “ Machines for producing Cold Air “ Proceedings,” 1881, page 122.

coolers are of the multitubular type for surface cooling, and are placed in the bedplate or frame. The valves for the compression and expansion cylinders are slides of somewhat peculiar design, worked from a pair of weigh-bars, one for the main and the other for the expansion slide. The valves are placed on the under side of the cylinders, which renders them rather difficult of access; but in the larger sizes of machines the cylinders are raised, and work down to the shaft at an angle, which gives a little more room below. The compressor is water jacketted.

The Haslam dry air refrigerator, which has been very largely adopted, is also made both horizontal and vertical, the horizontal type applying to large machines, and the vertical to those of small size. The cylinders are double-acting, and their arrangement with regard to one another varies in different classes of machines. The compressor is water-jacketted, and discharges into surface coolers placed in the bed. The compressed air, after having been cooled in the ordinary way by water, is further reduced in temperature in an interchanger, by the action either of the spent cold air on its way from the chamber in which it has been utilised, or of the cold air as it leaves the expansion cylinder; and in this manner a further condensation and deposition of moisture are brought about. The

Fig 18

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expansion cylinder presents no peculiarity in design, with the exception of the exhaust valves, which are separate from those admitting the air, and are so arranged as to offer as little obstruction as possible to the passage of the air. The Haslam Company also manufacture the Bell-Coleman machine, which was described in the author’s previous paper—“Proceedings 1881,” page 111.

A horizontal dry air refrigerator of the author’s design, of the type used for delivering from 20,000 to 60,000 cubic feet of cold air per hour, is shown in Figs. 9 and 10; and a section through the compression and expansion cylinders and valves is given in Fig. 18. The compressor is double-acting, and the expansion cylinder single-acting. They are placed close together, tandem fashion, leaving room for examination of the piston, with one rod

wm.

pression, it is exhausted from the passage K, having become cooled down to from 70 deg. to 90 deg. below zero Fah. The steam cylinder L is overhung from strong brackets cast on the bedplate, and is arranged so that a jet or surface condenser can be placed below, with an air-pump worked from a continuation of the piston-rod ; the space occupied is thus practically the same, whether the engine is non-condensing, as shown in the diagram, or condensing. The arrangement also lends itself readily to the application of a second steam cylinder, tandem fashion, for working on the compound principle, as shown in Figs. 19 and 20. In this case the surface condenser is placed below the high-pressure steam cylinder, the air pump being at the side, and worked from a crank pin on the fly-wheel. The same water that is used for cooling the air also condenses the steam, circulating first through the coolers and then through the condenser.

For land machines to deliver more than 60,000 cubic feet of cold air per hour the vertical type is adopted, and the compressor is made single-acting as well as the expansion cylinder, while a horizontal compound condensing steam engine is used for giving the necessary motive power. A machine to deliver 285,000 cubic feet of cold air per hour, for cooling a large market, is now being designed in this way. The compressor is furnished with an internal

Fig. 23

INLET

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COMPRESS

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pipe, from which a spray of cold water continually plays on the back of the piston and on the sides of the cylinder, but never comes in contact with the air itself. In order to secure compactness and simplicity, all machines delivering less than 20,000 cubic feet of cold air per hour are made of the type shown in Figs. 21 and 22, the compressors being single-acting. A section through the air cylinders of such a machine is given in Fig. 23. The smaller sizes are very frequently made on the vertical plan, for use both on land and on board ship, A steam-driven vertical machine is shown in Fig. 24. The design is practically the same as that of the horizontal machines; but in the vertical type the coolers are cast in one piece with the frame instead of being separate. In Fig. 25 is shown a vertical machine of similar design, but arranged for being driven by a belt. The main objects kept in view by the

author in designing all the foregoing machines are, economy of production, efficiency, and simplicity. Some thirty of these refrigerators of one form or the other have now been made and put to work since 1884; and in not one single instance has any breakdown occurred in working, nor have any repairs been required beyond those that would have been necessary to an ordinary steam engine of good construction. In many cases machines made in England have been packed and shipped to Australia, and to North and South America and other foreign countries, where they have been erected and put to work without the assistance of any skilled labour from this country. With regard to the power expended in cooling air on this plan, it may be stated that, in the best machines of large size now made, a weight of 10001b. of air per hour can be reduced , from 60 deg. above to 80 deg. below zero, with cooling water at 60deg. Fah., with the expenditure of about 18 indicated horsepower. This is equal to an abstraction of 916 units per pound of coal, with an engine using 21b. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour.

4. Considerations as to the Applications of the Various Systems.

Under this head it is not intended to deal with the class of apparatus first described—for abstracting heat by the rapid melting of a solid: inasmuch as, excepting for domestic purposes in localities where other ice is not available, its application is wholly special and very limited, being confined almost entirely to the laboratory.

Nor in regard to the machinery and apparatus in the second class—for abstracting heat by the evaporation of a more or less volatile liquid—need much be said, so far as ice-making and ordinary cooling are concerned; the various systems have already been explained in considerable detail, and sufficient information has been given upon which to base an estimate as to their economical application under any stated conditions. It is therefore chiefly with the machinery described in the third class that the present considerations will deal:— namely, machinery by which a gas is compressed, partially cooled while under compression, and further cooled by subsequent expansion in the performance of work. Probably the earliest application of a refrigerating machine to manufacturing purp

was in 1861, when one of Harrison’s eth< r machines was used by Mr. A. C. Kirk for the extraction of solid paraffin from shale oil. Since then the manufacture of paraffin has been developed to a large extent, and at the present time there are v ry few works engaged in its production without a refrigera-1 mg machine of one kind or another.* For the cooling of worts and of fermenting beer in breweries, refrigerating machines are largely employed. With English beer, which it is not necessary to cool below 50 deg. Fah., the genera¹ practice is to reduce the tempeia-

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of all inflammable or corrosive chemicals. Besides this, the facility of application of cold air machines is much beyond that of any other refrigerator. For these reasons they have been applied in dairies, and in butterine works ; in the latter case an additional advantage is gained from the rapidity with which the cooling can be accomplished, owing to the extremely low temperature at which the air is delivered from the machine.

The most extensive application of dry air refrigerators, however,

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and illustrated in The Engineer of 14th August, 1885, page 130. As to whether the air machine or that employing a volatile liquid is the best and most suitable, no general rule can be laid down. The simplicity, compactness, and readiness of application of the air machine have secured it a ready adoption in many cases where chemical machines would have been wholly inadmissible ; but on the other hand the author considers that air machines have frequently been entirely misapplied. For use on board ship there can probably be no difference of opinion; and nearly the whole of the meat now imported into this country in a cooled or frozen condition is preserved by means of dry air refrigerators, while in only one or two cases is a portion of it chilled and frozen on land by chemical machines.

The means adopted for the freezing and preservation of meat are very simple. They consist in lining the room, or the hold of the vessel, with material as impervious to heat as practicable. The construction of the lining is altered in different cases, according to circumstances and to fancy ; but it may be taken that an outer and inner layer of tongued and grooved boards lin. or l£in. thick, with a 'Jin. space between filled with charcoal, form a fairly good protection ; while in some cases silicate cotton may be used with advantage instead of charcoal. A little extra care and expense bestowed on the insulation of a chamber are soon repaid, for when the contents of the chamber are once reduced to the required temperature, the refrigerating machine has nothing further to do than to neutralise the heat passing through the walls, so that the more perfect the insulation the greater is the saving in fuel, in wear and tear of machinery, and in attendance. The cold air from the machine is usually admitted by ducts placed near the ceiling; and after performing its cooling work it is led back to the compressor, to be used over again with the addition of a small amount of fresh air. In freezing, a temperature of about 10 deg. Fah. or even lower should be maintained, and the carcasses should be hung so that the air can circulate freely around them. If, however, the meat has previously been frozen, as is generally the case with the cargoes brought from abroad, which are to a large extent frozen on best packed as close together as possible,

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has been to the preservation of meat and other perishable foods. Explanations with regard to the general question of preservation by cold have already been fully gone into by the author in a paper on the “ Preservation of Foods by Cold,” read before the Health Congress at Brighton, in December, 1881; and it will therefore suffice here to state that, although it had long been known that at low temperatures the decomposition of animal matter was arrested

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ture of the cooling liquor by passing it through the refrigerator of the machine, the cooled liquor being afterwards used in an ordinary brewer’s refrigerator. For lager beer, however, which is fermented at about 40deg. Fah., the liquor is generally cooled by means of brine, and the temperature is brought down nearly to freezing point. The same machine is in this country frequently employed for circulating cooled brine through a series of pipes above the fermenting tuns as well as for cooling the liquor; while in lager beer breweries the whole of the fermenting rooms and stores are kept, the former

Fig 27

for an almost indefinite period, yet the practical realisation of preservation by cold was prevented from being carried out for want of a simple and efficient means of artificial refrigeration. The attempts that had been made to produce a refrigerated atmosphere by means of ice had not given satisfactory results, owing no doubt to the moist state of the air, which, cooled by contact with melting ice, was necessarily saturated, and brought about a musty taste nd loss of flavour in the meat preserved in it. In 1878, however,

Fig 23

shore, the carcasses are taking care to avoid injury through bruising, and to see that a free space is left for the cold air to circulate between the meat and the inner lining of the chamber. The temperature in this case need only be maintained low enough to leave a sufficient margin in case of the machinery having to be stopped for any slight adjustment or for oiling.

The capacity of a machine to be applied in any given case is determined by a consideration first of the cooling work to be performed on the material contained in the chamber ; and, secondly, of the amount of heat that will pass into the chamber from without. With regard to the first, nothing need be said here. The second quantity depends upon the area of the walls, floor, and ceiling, their construction, and the difference between the minimum internal and maximum external temperature. Experience has, of course, laid down certain general rules; but there are always special cases arising which require special treatment, and which can only be considered on the basis here set forth. The trade in frozen meat has already necessitated the establishment of large stores, where the carcasses are received and kept until they are required for consumption. A number of retail butchers also are now adopting cold stores of their own, and in Fig. 26 is shown in section such a storage arrangement carried out in the vaults in Leadenhall Market for the preservation of about 20 tons of meat, partly frozen and partly unfrozen. A vertical dry-air machine, such as is shown in Fig. 25, is driven by an Otto gas engine, and by working from three to six hours per day supplies sufficient cold air for the four chambers. The temperature few degrees during the night, and between Saturday night and monday morning, but this is not found to be any disadvantage, and it has never yet been necessary to run the machine on a Sunday. The same water that is used for cooling the air cools also the gas engine cylinder, and is afterwards used for heating the offices, j The cost of the gas in this case is Is. 3d. per hour. In view of I the increasing demand for installations of this kind, the author has made arrangements with Messrs. Crossley Brothers to manufacture his dry-air machine in combination with the Otto gas engine, in a form somewhat similar to that shown in Figs. 21 and 22, the gas engine simply taking the place of the steam engine there shown. In this way the cost will be reduced ; and space, also, which is generally very limited, will be saved. Similar installations to that shown in Fig. 26 have been erected for poulterers, game dealers, and butter salesmen, but need not be further referred to.

In addition to the importation of dead meat, refrigerating machines of the horizontal kind shown in the diagrams have been applied for supplying fresh cool air for the ventilation of ships’ holds in which live cattle are carried. In this way a temperature of 100 deg. Fah. has been reduced to 70 deg. in the height of summer, and the loss of cattle has been entirely prevented. No doubt the same system could be equally well applied for the cooling and ventilation of buildings; but as far as the author is aware it has not yet been tried.

In Fig. 27 is shown a plan, partly in section, of an arrangement on board a passenger vessel for making ice, preserving meat, game, fish, and other perishable foods, cooling water, preserving vegetables, and cooling wine, beer, aerated waters, &c. This is a plan frequently carried out in large passenger vessels, and was introduced, the author believes, by Mr. Manuel, the engineering superintendent of the Peninsular and Oriental Company. The particular arrangement illustrated is one adopted in connection with a vertical steam-driven machine such as that shown in Fig. 24. The course of the cold air is indicated by arrows. In case of the vegetable room becoming too cold, ducts are provided by which the air can be led direct from the meat chamber to the machine. A somewhat similar arrangement of refrigerating plant is used in hotels; and the author’s machines have been successfully applied for this purpose in the United States, though not as yet in this country.

A recent application, also worthy of notice, is for preserving fish on board steam trawlers and on shore. Last year two of the author’s vertical machines were supplied for this purpose,

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at about 42 deg. Fah., and the latter at about 38 deg, Fah., by means of cold brine circulating through pipes placed either on the ceiling or around the walls. For breweries, as well as for paraffine extraction, there can be no doubt that the most suitable machines f o employ are those in which the cold is produced by the evaporation of a volatile liquid. Notwithstanding this, air refrigerating machines have been applied for both purposes in certain special cases, and have given good results, though at a larger expenditure °f fuel. There are many instances, however, in which the extra cost of fuel may be more than counterbalanced by the advantages icsulting from simplicity and compactness, and from the absence

Full information in regard to the most recent practice in paraffin cooling will be found in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 2!)th May and 30th Nov. 1885, which contains papers by Mr. Beilby describing the cooling machinery erected at the Oakbank Oil Works.

bLam^LSinnindnlf    Jt!n th<l C°ld ^ ,machine»,1<; » steam trawler and one on a carrier, for use off the coast of Brazil,

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during the whole year. The preservation of yeast, the cooling of gelatine dry plates, of fresh-killed meat in slaughter-houses, and the freezing of tongues in South America for exportation, have all been satisfactorily accomplished by the dry-air machines.

A rather remarkable application of refrigeration was made towards the close of last year by Captain Lindmark, of the Swedish Royal Engineers, who was engaged in the construction of a tunnel for foot passengers through a hill in Stockholm, on the top of which were built residential houses. The workmen came upon some ground, consisting of gravel mixed with clay and water, which had so little cohesion that the ordinary method of excavating had to be abandoned and the works stopped, owing to a subsidence in the earth above, which endangered the safety of the houses. Underpinning was out of the question, on account of the great expense. Under these circumstances it was decided to freeze the running ground, and to use cold air for the purpose as being most readily applied. One of the author’s horizontal machines, capable of delivering 25,000 cubic feet of air per hour, was accordingly supplied by Messrs. Siebe, Gorman, and Co., and was erected in the tunnel as close as possible to the required spot. The innermost end of the tunnel next the face was formed into a freezing chamber by means of partition walls, which were made of a double layer of wood filled in between with charcoal. In the middle of last September the works were resumed. After the refrigerator had run for sixty hours continuously, the gravel was frozen into a hard mass to a depth varying from 5ft. near the bottom of the tunnel to 1ft. near the top. At the crown no freezing took place; and though the temperature at the bottom of the chamber was as low as 40 deg. below zero Fah., a thermometer placed at the top, 16ft. above the floor, indicated 32 deg. above zero. This circumstance, however, was an advantage rather than otherwise, because in any case the roof would have had to be supported by planking, which would have been difficult to drive into the gravel had it been actually frozen at that part. The work was proceeded with in lengths of 5ft., the excavation commencing at top; and a temporary iron wall made up of plates 12in. square, as shown, was built in against the face from the top downwards as the cutting away of the gravel proceeded. For 8ft. to 10ft. up from the bottom no protection was needed, as the frozen gravel formed such a hard solid mass that it had to be removed with special tools. After once fairly starting, it was sufficient to run the cold air machine on the average from ten to twelve hours every night, excepting after heavy rains, when much water percolated through the gravel. The machine worked all the time without a single hitch, and delivered the air at a temperature of 67 deg. below zero Fah. The temperature of the freezing chamber was generally from 6 deg. to 15 deg. below zero Fah. after twelve hours’ running; but it soon rose to freezing point when the men began to work. After two 5ft. lengths had been excavated, the partition wall was removed forward; the capacity of the freezing chamber thus varied from 3000 to 6000 cubic feet. The arching of the tunnel was completed as rapidly as possible close up to the temporary iron wall while the ground was still frozen. This method of driving the tunnel was employed through a distance of about 80ft. with entire success. In the residential house to the north, neither subsidence nor cracks were perceptible three ths after the tunnel was completed at this point. In the house to the south, the front has subsided about an inch, causing some small cracks in the walls; but this house was not so well built as the other, subsidences having taken place in it before the tunnel was commenced. The daily progress while using the freezing process averaged about 1ft.*

Although this is the first instance in which a dry air refrigerator has been applied for the freezing of running ground, it is not the first in which refrigeration has been used for that purpose. As early as 1862 an ether machine was constructed by Messrs. Siebe, Gorman, and Co. for freezing a quicksand met with in sinking a well. In that case pipes formed into a coil of larger diameter than the lining of the well were sunk into the quicksand, which was then frozen solid by circulating cold brine through the pipes. The excavation was then proceeded with, the lining put in, the circulation of brine stopped, and the coil removed. The same plan has recently been adopted by Mr. Poetsch in Germany in connection with the sinking of colliery shafts ; but instead of a coil a series of vertical iron pipes are used, arranged in a circle, the effect of course being precisely the same.f For driving the Stockholm tunnel, however, it is difficult to see how freezing by means of brine could have been applied, the excavation being horizontal instead of vertical.

LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.

HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE—CHANCERY DIVISION.

(Before Mr. Justice Stirling.)

THE GERM MILLING COMPANY V. ROBINSON.

THIS is an action by the plaintiffs, who are the assignees of letters patent, dated the 17th of July, 1875, granted to Mr. Thomas Muir for “ improvements in the manufacture of meal and flour from wheat, maize, and other grain, and in obtaining a valuable produot during the said manufacture,” to restrain the defendants, Messrs. J. and H. Robinson, who are millers, carrying on business at Deptford, from infringing their patent.

The Attorney-General—Sir Charles Russell, Q.C.—Mr. Aston, Q.C., and Mr. Chadwyck Healey are for the plaintiffs; Sir R. Webster, Q.C., Mr. Romer, Q.C., and Mr. E. Carpmael for the defendants.

This is a very important patent case, somewhat akin to the celebrated Bovill case tried years ago. Among other improvements introduced into the manufacture of flour has been the separation of the “ germ,” a little white bud at the base of the wheat kernel. This bud grinds up with difficulty, and it is stated that its presence in wheat tends to cause fermentation, and to turn the flour “ sour.” The plaintiffs assert that Mr. Muir has devised and patented means for getting rid of the germ, based on the principle that when the semolina is ground in roller mills according to his patent, the germ only flattens out, and is then readily separated from the reduced product by means of purifiers or dressers, and when so separated forms a useful product called germ-meal. The plaintiffs allege that the defendant infringes the patent for this invention. The defendant, backed up by a powerful association of millers, denies infringement, and sets up the usual defence of want of novelty in plaintiff’s patents, &c. &c.

The Attorney-General, in opening the plaintiffs’ case, said that Mr. Muir was not only a practical miller—not a miller in the old jog and trot style, but one who had made such improvements in milling as were expected to rival those which were the subject of the well-known “ Bovill’s Patent.” That patent, like the one which was the subject of the present action, had been strongly opposed by a combination of millers who wanted to use the improvements without paying for them. The plaintiff’s patent was being actually and successfully worked at the mills of Messrs. Glen at Glasgow, who were licencees of Muir’s patent. The defendants had deliberately intended to adopt Glen’s manner of working, and if the patent was valid there would be no difficulty in proving its deliberate infringement by the defendants. Theimproved results from using the plaintiff’s patent were anincreasein the purity of the flour and the production of a separate result in the form of germs or germ meal. Milling was one of the oldest trades in the world, and great strides had not so often been made in its improvement as those which had been witnessed in other manufactures; but this patent represented one of the most marked improvements in the manufacture of flour and other products of milling. In this country the system generally adopted was that of low grinding, when the mill-stones were close together. In most of the English mills, even now, mill-stones, and not rollers, were used; rollers, in

* A full description of the construction of this tunnel is given in The Engineer of April 9th, 1886, page 282.

t Further particulars of Poetsch’s process are given in The Engineer Of November 30th, 1883, page 417.

fact, were not used in 10 per cent, of the mills, so far as the number of mills and not the producing power was considered. The stones used, both upper and nether, were of French burr, marked or scored with the well-known lines. The effect of low grinding was not merely crushing but cutting and grinding, in a way which involved champing up the whole substance of the wheat berry. The learned counsel then described the effect of grinding on wheat when examined microscopically. There were on the wheat berry five skins of different descriptions and structure—viz., the epidermis, the epicarpium, the sarcocarpium, the endocarpium, and the embryo-membrane, the last of which contained a large percentage of phosphoric acid and gluten. The centre of the wheat berry was cellular in structure, not unlike the honeycomb, except in colour, and this gave the fine pure flour. At the top of the wheat berry was the beard, which it was desirable to remove, and at the other end was the germ of the wheat, about 3 per cent, of the entire structure. The germ was different in character from the other portions of the berry, and the alleged value of the plaintiff’s invention consisted in keeping the germ out of the flour better than it was done before. The germ was different from the husk and also from the kernel—it was not farinaceous, but of a darker colour than the flour, oleaginous, and not easily friable. Under the pressure of the roller the effect was not to reduce it to particles, but to flatten it, whereas by low grinding, although it was not as friable as the rest of the berry, it was reduced to fragments. Its disadvantages in the actual manufacture of flour were that it deepened the colour and otherwise deteriorated it, and from its oleaginous character, if allowed to remain, it was likely to cause fermentation and sourness in the flour. It therefore became necessary to remove the germ from the flour, and its removal had attracted great attention both at home and abroad. Millers, of course, endeavoured while extracting the germ to leave as great an amount of flour as possible. Abroad, and particularly in Hungary and Austria, a system of high grinding was in vogue, and rollers for grinding had first been introduced in those countries. The result of high grinding with rollers was that a fine dead flour was produced. The residuum was treated again, and the result of the process was that the external husk was broken up with the germs, particles of flour adhering. Semolina was then produced, which was of three kinds, and this was submitted to further treatment. The germ, the husk, and the flour were mixed up, except so far as the dead flour had been extracted. Rollers, however, flattened the and made them more easily susceptible of separation, defendant in his answer professed that he did not regard the complete extraction of the germ as desirable, and said he ground up the germ with the other flour product; but he had certainly adopted machinery which flattened and separated the germs. Great impulse had been given to the English trade by continental and American competition, and in the last-named country flour was produced, under great economic conditions. The learned law officer, by the aid of a model of Bovill’s invention, which was patented about the year 1849, showed how the law had been willing to afford protection to improvements in machinery by applying a new principle to means formerly in use, and described at some length the various inventions which were alleged to have anticipated the invention of Mr. Muir. He also described in detail Mr. Muir’s improvement, which is stated in the specification to consist “ in separating the germs from the fleshy parts of the wheat, in using only the fleshy parts in the manufacture of meal and flour, and in obtaining the germs by themselves as a valuable, nutritious, and novel product suitable for feeding cattle, for making flesh-forming biscuits, and for other purposes.” The germ is alleged by the inventor to be successfully separated, without waste of the valuable portions of the wheat, under a modification found to answer well, as follows : —First, by cleaning, screening, separating, and by preference sizing the grain by any ordinary or suitable means and appliances; secondly, by cracking or breaking up the grains so prepared into small portions, known as semolina, ordinarily effected by passage once or oftener between ordinary horizontal millstones or their equivalents—in practice by reducing or breaking up the pieces of grain at three graduated breaks, the first break producing a large semolina, and the subsequent breaks entirely disengaging the smaller portions of semolina from the shell of the grain; thirdly, the semolina product of each break is passed through boulting cylinders or reels to remove and sift out the dead flour and bran produced by the breaking-up process; fourthly, the inventor sizes and separates the semolina thus freed from the bran and flour by means of a sifting apparatus similar to a middlings or semolina separating machine ; fifthly, the smaller size of semolina is passed between rotating rolls or stones to be afterwards dressed into flour, but the larger portions or sizes of the semolina, in which the germs are found concentrated, are passed forward to and between rotating rolls, stones not being used part of the process. The semolina or fleshy portion is easily crushed or broken into flour, but the germs pass from the rolls each as a flattened mass. After leaving the rolls the whole product is dressed through a silk reel or sifting apparatus, which allows the flour to pass through, but discharges the flattened germs out and over the end of the reel. Any flour still adhering to the germs may be removed by a scouring apparatus similar to, say, a bran duster. The inventor thus claims to obtain an entirely new and novel mercantile product, which he names “ germ meal, the absence of which from the flour is said much to improve its quality. The specification also states the inventor’s method of treating maize.

At the conclusion of the learned counsel’s address, Dr. J. T. King, of Liverpool, was called as the first witness for the plaintiffs. The case is expected to last several days.

Muir’s specification, dated July 17th, 1875, No. 2560, runs as followsIn the manufacture of meal and flour from grain, particularly in the production of flour from wheat, maize, and like cereals, the general practice heretofore has been to grind or crush the grains between stones or other equivalents into a mass more or less finely divided, and afterwards to separate the bran and offal from the flour by sifting and like means. That practice is and has been disadvantageous, inasmuch as the resulting meal and flour and the bread made from it are dark coloured. Probably, however, it is the only method satisfactorily available for soft and damp wheats. In Austria and Hungary, and to a small extent in Great Britain, a practice has been followed of cracking dry and firm wheat into portions, of separating these into various grades of quality, and of subsequently crushing the separated portions into flour of different qualities. Notwithstanding the most watchful cleaning and care, it has been found that the lower grades of flour made in this way when baked give bread of very dark and undesired quality. After protracted and patient investigation, I have found that the cause of the dark colour is the presence of the grain germs in the mass of the meal or flour. I am aware that various proposals, and it may be attempts, have been made to remove from wheat and like grains the germs which are known to discolour the flour, and particularly the bread made therefrom, by cutting, hulling, and slicing off parts of the grain, thereby removing more or less of such germs. The said germs have also been more or less removed or torn out from the grain by the rasping or tearing action produced by roughened surfaces. It has also been attempted to sift out the germs after the wheat or grain has been rough ground; and as regards maize, proposals have been made to soak the grains in acid solutions, and subsequently by drying and other means, to remove the germs. All such attempts or proposals, however, have been practically wanting in success, because either the germ was not wholly disengaged from, or was mixed up with, the true flour particles, or if so disengaged by any cutting, hulling, slicing, separating, tearing, or soaking and drying operation, valuable portions of the true flour cells were removed with the germs, and so the separation was effected at such a sacrifice of good flour that the result was obtained too dearly. Now, my invention consists in separating the germs from the fleshy parts of the wheat, in using only the fl??hy parts in th® manufacture of meal and flour, and in obtaining the germs by themselves as a valuable, nutritious, and novel product, suitable for feeding cattle, for making flesh-forming biscuit, and for other purposes. I have found after a long series of experiments that when wheat grains are cracked and broken up by passing them between horizontal millstones or their equivalents, the germs are mainly disengaged from the cracked portions of the grains, although they remain mixed up therewith. Some germs no doubt remain embedded in the fleshy portions. To successfully separate out the germs without waste of the valuable portions of the wheat, I in practice, under a modification which I have found to answer well, proceed in manner following :—(1) I clean, screen, separate, and, by preference, size the grain by any ordinary or suitable means and appliance. (2) I crack or break up the grains so prepared into small portions known as semolina. This may and is ordinarily effected by passage once or oftener—usually not less than twice— between ordinary horizontal millstones or their equivalents. In practice I reduce or break up the pieces of grain at three graduated breaks; the first break produces a large semolina, and the subsequent breaks entirely disengage the smaller portions of semolina from the shell of the grain. (3) I pass this semolina product of each break through boulting cylinders or reels, to remove and sift out the dead flour and bran produced by the breaking-up (4) I size and separate the semolina thus freed from the bran and flour by means of a sifting apparatus similar to a middlings or semolina separating machine. (5) The smaller size of semolina is passed between rotating rolls or stones to be reduced, and afterwards dressed into flour, but the larger portions or sizes of the semolina, in which the germs are found concentrated, I pass forward to and between rotating rolls. Stones must not be used at this part of the process. The semolina or fleshy portions of the grain is easily crushed or broken up into flour, but the germs, which are elastic and of an oleaginous nature, pass from the rolls each as a flattened mass. After leaving the rolls—usually after passing between two or more rolls—the whole product is dressed through a silk reel or sifting apparatus, which allows the flour to pass through, but discharges the flattened germs out of and over the end of the reel. Any flour still adhering to the germs may be removed by a scouring apparatus similar to, say, a bran duster. I thus obtain an entirely new and novel mercantile product, which I name ‘ germ meal,’ the absence of which from the flour much improves its quality. The foregoing description relates mainly to the treatment of wheat and like germs. In treating maize I proceed in manner following :—Maize, when broken roughly into meal—a disintegrating machine, which does not grind up the germs so much as stones, is preferred for this purpose—is sifted by a boulting reel or sifting apparatus, say, similar to an oatmeal sifter, and the large grit or overtail in which the germ is concentrated is then passed forward between rotating rolls. The product from the rolls containing the germs is passed through sifting apparatus substantially as in the treatment of wheat and like grains hereinbefore described, and the germs are obtained by themselves. Having now clearly described and explained the nature of the said invention, and the manner in which it is to be carried into effect, I claim—(1) Manufacturing meal and flour from the fleshy or farinaceous parts of grains, substantially as herein described; (2) treating cracked or broken grain so as to separate the germs therefrom and obtain such germs as a valuable product, substantially as herein described.”

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[We do not hold ourselves responsible for the opinions of our Correspondents.]

FORTY-KNOT SHIPS.

Sir,—In your issue of May 7th Mr. Paulson writes quoting from? a paper read by Mr. Hurst concerning a 40-knot ship. Starting, from the results of a torpedo boat 110ft. by 12ft. by 6ft. 3in. draught, having a speed of power, the particulars are linear dimensions, which particulars appear to me to be in error. The horse-power for the 330ft. ship is stated to be 12,690 at 37'6 knots, the figure having been obtained from the small boat by assuming it to vary as the cube of the linear dimension. According to Reech’s law, or the law of the late Mr. Froude, which I understand is one and the same thing, the resistance at corresponding speeds varies as the cube of the linear dimension. But Mr. Hurst and Mr. Paulson have substituted horse-power for resistance, which alters matters considerably. Since a speed factor is involved

/ Jj \7

1 T ) ’ w^ere k and l are the respective lengths of the long and short ships. Now, if we increase indicated horse-power by /    ^ " we 8®* 30,600 instead of

12,690, as obtained by increasing 470 in the ratio of

Messrs. Paulson and Hurst may probably think this corrected figure rather high. Certainly a little should be deducted for the difference between the surface friction coefficients in passing from the shorter to the longer lengths of ship, but this is a matter of detail not involving any serious modification in the above figure.

To show roughly, in another way, that the estimate 12,690-horse power at a speed of 37'6 knots for the 330ft. ship is much too low, I have calculated the horse-power necessary to tow a plane 330ft. by 18ft. 9in.—the same length and draught as the ship in question —from coefficients deduced from experiments by the late Mr. Froude, and find that at 37‘6 knots it would require 9000-horse power. Now supposing it were possible to drive this plane from engines within, then making allowances for friction of machinery and other losses, this figure would have to be increased at least 50 per cent., making it 13,500. Taking the ratio of true surface to the area of the longitudinal plane in the 330ft. ship to be as 1‘3: 1; then 13,500 x 1'3 = 17,500 I.H.P. consumed in surface friction of ship only. The power spent in wave-making may be taken approximately about, if not quite, as much as is required for surface friction. Assuming it to be as much, we get 17,500 x 2 = 35,000 instead of 12,690.

Using Mr. Hurst’s coefficients to convert this into weight, it will be readily seen that this figure would have to De materially reduced before a ship of such dimensions could carry the machinery.

The same reasoning applied to the 440ft. ship would show that 30,080I.H.P.isa moderate allowance indeed for a speed of 43'5 knots. For my own part I should be inclined to multiply it by 2, and feel-rather doubtful then as to realising the speed.

The question raised by Mr. Hurst is certainly worth studying. We may yet see ships running at 40 knots ; but engineers have a great deal to do before that stage is reached, principally with them. Form—with which th( to deal—is a lesser though important part of the problem.

E. H. Parker.

FEED-WATER HEATERS.

Sir,—In a letter dated May 11th I promised to place before1 you a few facts relating to the heating of feed-water by means of steam taken direct from the boiler, and with your permission will now do so. They are derived, as I before mentioned, entirely from those who purchased my heaters, and who, as you will see, are unanimous in stating that as used by them there is economy in fuel in addition to other advantages, which of themselves are,, however, of a nature to repay the outlay incurred.

(1) By the arrangement the boilers are run up with water at 160 deg. instead of cold as usual, the steam for heating being, obtained from the donkey boiler, and the water run into the main boilers in the usual manner, On two voyages the saving of fuel!*

June 25, 1886.

T EL E ENGIUEM

Or

amounted to 2 tons per day, or 10 per cent, by the use of the be hermetically sealed, and the ship therefore becomes practically heater. The boilers steamed better, were tight, and no repairs unsinkable. If from straining or collision, one, or several, of the were required, this being contrary to previous experience for a compartments were to be pierced, it would not materially interfere similar period.    with the working of the ship ; and supposing this to occur when

(2)    Saving in fuel was reported at end of a prolonged trial as the vessel was laden, the loss of cargo would be less by this system

If tons per day, or over 7 per cent.; that no steam was lost when than almost any other, whilst facilities for repairs are very great, cleaning fires at sea, and the other conditions same as in the The vessel has special arrangements for being thoroughly venti-preceding case.    lated in every part, and is entirely lighted with the electric light.

(3)    Reported a considerable saving in fuel; that boiler was The machinery, moreover, is placed aft. and is entirely separated cleaner after six months, and that when in use they were able to from the cargo. The accommodation for the officers and crew has get from 5 lb. to 8 lb. more steam than when heater was shut off. also had special attention. The vessel has been built to the

(4)    With heater in use burnt 12 per cent, less fuel than without, highest class Veritas. The propelling machinery has been manu-

(5)    Steamed better, and on a seven months’ cruise the heater factured by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company, and caused a decrease in previous consumption—of 6 tons per day— is on the triple expansion system.

amounting to 18 cwt. per day. Boiler was perfectly tight the On the 10th inst., the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire whole time.    Company added to its continental passenger service two fine

(6)    Boilers reported tighter than they have ever been since they steamers for those who travel from Grimsby to the Continent,

were constructed, an order for a similar heater for another steamer The two vessels—one of which was launched and the other fully accompanying the report. Leak in boilers was cause of heater completed for her future service between Grimsby and Hamburg— being put in, and a report as to fuel is promised later on. Fore- are the finest vessels of the company’s fleet, and have been built by going are all applied to marine boilers.    Messrs. C. S. Swan and Hunter, of Wallsend, near Newcastle.

(7)    Three months’trial; average result reported. Consumption The Warrington is of the following dimensions:—Length over all,

12 per cent, less when heater is in use than when shut off.    240ft.; breadth of beam, 30ft.; moulded depth, 17ft. Her engines

(8)    Three months’ trial; average result 13 per cent, saving in —which are being built by Messrs. Westgarth, English, and Co.,

fuel. These two are applied to land boilers.    of Middlesbrough—are of the triple expansion surface condensing

The foregoing will, I hope, convince you that it is a fact that type, and are capable of indicating a power of 1100 horses, and of under certain conditions what appears sure to result in loss from driving the ship 13 knots. After the launch the steamer Northen-the fuel point of view is conducive to economy. I append, to don, which has just been completed by Messrs. Swan and Hunter, enable you to verify the correctness of the above, but not for made a trial run. A local paper says: “From the moment the publication, should you desire to do so, the sources from which engines were started off the Tyne they were never stopped again they are obtained.    John Kirkaldy. until the Northendon reached the Grimsby Roads. They worked

40, West India Dock-road, London,    with the utmost satisfaction to all concerned, there not being the

June 23rd.    slightest indication of heated bearings, or any of the difficulties

sometimes observable in new engines. The cylinders are 22in., 35in., and 57in. in diameter respectively, by a 39in. stroke. Steam is supplied from two boilers, at a pressure of 150 lb. to the square inch. On the run round there was indicated 1135-horse power, and the maximum speed of the engines was 78 revolutions per minute, driving the vessel at a speed of over 13 knots per hour. The engines were made by the Wallsend Slipway Engineering Company, this being the thirteenth set that the company has constructed; and it has at the present moment four other sets in course of construction. The first set was completed in August, 1883.”

H.M.S. Lawrence, built to the order of the Government of India by Messrs. Laird Brothers, of Birkenhead, was successfully launched on the 15th inst., in the presence of a numerous and distinguished gathering of spectators. The design has been carefully worked out by Sir Edward J. Reed, K.C.B., late Chief Constructor of the Navy, and has been built under his personal supervision, with the assistance of his principal inspectors, Mr. J. Hudson and Mr. J. Fortescue Flannery, of London. The vessel is 209ft. long, 32ft. 3in. broad, draught of water 10ft., and displacement about 1160 tons. She is intended for dispatch service in the Persian Gulf, and is provided with a pair of compound oscillating paddle-wheel engines of about 1300 indicated horse-power, capable of driving her at the rate of fully 13^ knots an hour.

Messrs. Fleming and Ferguson, Phoenix Works, Paisley, launched Thursday, 17th inst., the first of two 'powerful dredgers—the Gilbertson—which they are constructing for the Ribble Improvement Commissioners, Preston. The dimensions are—170ft. long, by 40ft. beam, by 10ft. deep, and each dredger will be capable of raising 800 tons per hour from a depth of 35ft. The buckets are unusually large, having a capacity of 20 cwt. each. Throughout the entire vessel cast steel has been used for all parts, when such could be applied—buckets, tumblers, wheels, &c., being all of that material. The dredger is self-propelling, was launched with all machinery on board and with steam up, and at once proceeded on her way to Preston.

On Thursday, the 17th inst., Messrs. Edward Finch and Co. launched from their shipbuilding yard at Chepstow a steel barge built for the Bristol Docks Committee. The following are her dimensions: — Length between perpendiculars, 75ft.; breadth moulded, 21ft. 6in.; depth, 6ft. 6in. She is built throughout of Llandore S. steel.

On the 18th inst. the s.s. Dardanus, which has recently been completed by Messrs R. and W. Hawthorne, Leslie, and Co., Hebburn, for the Ocean Steamship Company, and engined by Messrs. Robert Stephenson and Co., Newcastle, left the Tyne for London. The dimensions of the vessel are as follows:—Length, 320ft.; breadth, 36ft.; and depth, 27ft. 9in. The engines are of Holt’s tandem design, having cylinders 27in. and 58in. diameter with a stroke of 5ft., and indicating 1265-horse-power. Steam of 80 lb. pressure is supplied from one large double-ended steel boiler of a weight of 75 tons, and this is fitted with Fox’s patent corrugated furnaces. The vessel made, we are informed, a very quick passage to London, the engines worked smoothly and well, and proved highly satisfactory. This is the fourth of four similar vessels just built and engined by the same firms.

On the 19th inst., the Barrow Shipbuilding Company launched from its yard the screw steamer Powhatan, built by it for the Mediterranean and New York Steamship Company, of Liverpool, for its trade between the Mediterranean and North American ports. The vessel is 310ft. in length, by 33ft. in breadth, by 26ft. 7in. depth moulded. She has been built of steel, with five water-tight bulkheads, bar keel, straight stem, and round stern. She will be schooner rigged; has accommodation in bridge for captain, officers, and engineers, with a spacious saloon and two state-rooms for passengers, the crew being berthed forward in a top-gallant forecastle. She is provided with three 6in. and one 7in. steam winches for working the cargo, made by Messrs. The engines are Waddington and Longbottom, of Barrow, and a steam windlass by Emerson, Walker, and Co., for working the anchors, and Harrison’s patent steam steering gear in the wheel house aft. She has been constructed under the superintendence of Mr. George Hepburn, consulting engineer, and will receive the highest class in Lloyd’s register. The vessel will be propelled by inverted direct-acting triple expansion engines, having two high-pressure cylinders 18in. diameter, one intermediate cylinder 38in. diameter, and one low-pressure cylinder 60in. diameter by 42in. stroke, adapted for a steam pressure of 150 lb. per square inch, capable of indicating about 1600-horse power.

BOILER EXPLOSIONS.

Sir,—In your last issue you publish a letter from Mr. E. B. Barnard, in which is a statement that “ the flue [of a boiler] was sufficiently strong without cross tubes.” the popular opinion that cross tubes strengthen flues. Now without absolutely denying this, I would ask, Of what possible utility can a cross tube be, when placed in the flue, as a means of stiffening the furnace—where tubes are inadmissible, and at the same time, if of any good at all, most required? It was once the practice to stay the shells of cylindrical boilers by vertical and horizontal bar stays. This is now recognised as a fallacy, and probably cross tubes are equally useless. Mr. Barnard’s statement is, however, calculated to support the opinion held by many steam users that by the insertion of a tube or two they have strengthened their boiler—an impression at once misleading and dangerous. The only rational means of strengthening flues is the Adamson flanged seam, or some similar encircling support. These can be made to strengthen the furnace parts as well as the flue.

Mr. Barnard’s remarks as to inspection scarcely meets the case. Efficient inspection, vastly better than anything supplied by Board of Trade officialism, is within reach of every boiler owner. The disastrous results of neglecting the means provided would be best stopped by the neglect being followed by due punishment. So far the Boiler Explosions Act has been a dead letter, and culpable cases are passed over by the Board’s officers with the customary and stereotyped phrases. Had this Act been enforced in a proper spirit, we should by this hear less of serious explosions, for inspection would by now have become general.    W. H. Booth.

Manchester, June 22nd.

This sentence represents

THE OUTPUT OP PIG IRON.

Sir,—I was surprised to learn from your issue of the 11th inst. that a furnace had been put out of blast at Carron. The fact is that for some years past the stock of Carron pig has been reduced, and now it is necessary to meet this by putting another furnace in blast.

For your information I may state that Carron Company is now perhaps the only maker of iron of the old Scotch quality—an iron so soft that it can be run into the finest castings which can be machined, punched or sheared. Sample sent you by parcel post.

Carron, Stirlingshire, N.B.,    David Cowan,

June 14th.    Manager for Carron Company.

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS.

There was launched on 5th June, from Messrs. Caird and Co.’s yard, the steel troopship Dalhousie, built jfor the service of the Government of India. Her principal dimensions are: Length, 239ft. 7in.; breadth, 36ft.; and depth, 27ft.; of a gross tonnage of 1523 tons, her under-deck tonnage being 990'76 tons. She has two complete decks from stem to stern, namely, an upper and main deck, the upper being so constructed as to give uninterrupted com-nication throughout for working the vessel, the upper deck is capable of accommodating 250 natives, and the main deck 220 natives. Arrangements are provided in the ship for a light armament of six-pounder quick-firing guns and Norden-feldt. guns of small calibre, so that she will possess offensive and defensive qualities. She is, moreover, provided with a double bottom, for the purpose of carrying either fresh or salt water for ballast. She is also divided into a number of water-tight partments by tanks and water-tight bulkheads, the lower deck at each end of the vessel being made thoroughly water-tight, in order to provide so far as possible against accidents or damage in action. Messrs. Caird proposed in the early stages of the contract to fit this vessel with triple expansion engines, and she is therefore provided with engines of this type working at the pressure of 140 lb. per square inch, supplied from four steel boilers.

1500 indicated horse-power, and will be capable of driving her at a speed of fully 13 knots per hour. She is expressly designed for trooping purposes by SirE. J.Reed.K.C.B., late Chief Constructor of the Navy, and has been built under his personal supervision, with the assistance of his principal inspecting officers, Mr. Hudson and Mr. Flannery, of London.

Messrs. R. Thompson and Sons recently launched from their Southwick Yard, Sunderland, an iron sailing barque, the Santa, built for Messrs. Turner, Edwards, and Co., Bristol, and of the following dimensions, viz.: Length, 205ft. 8in.; breadth, 33ft. 6in.; depth to floors, 19ft. 9in. She has been constructed under Lloyd’s special survey for the highest class, and under the personal superintendence of Captain Langford, who will also command her. The vessel has raised quarter-deck and monkey forecastle, large iron deck-house amidships with accommodation for crew, the apprentices being placed in fore part of quarter-deck; cabin aft for captain and officers, and spare berths; Clarke, Chapman, Parsons, and Co.’s patent windlass.

Messrs. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Mitchell, and Co., have launched a screw steamer, the first ever specially constructed for the carriage of petroleum in bulk across the Atlantic. The vessel, which is named the Gltickauf, is 300ft. in length, and of 3000 tons burthen. She is subdivided by longitudinal and transverse bulkheads into large number of cells or compartments, which are constructed in a much stronger manner than is usual in ordinary vessels. The shell of the ship, in the wake of the compartments, has also been specially strengthened, and the spacing and description of rivets employed are quite different from what is usual in ordinary steamers; in fact, the whole of the compartments have been treated more as boilers, capable of standing a heavy pressure. Before launching, every compartment in the ship has been thoroughly tested. The vessel was launched with some of the •compartments full, the result being entirely satisfactory. In connection with all the compartments, arrangements have been made ‘for allowing, of the expansion and contraction of the liquid cargo •from variation of temperature, and also for carrying off the volatile gases which are evolved from such cargoes. The vessel has "iwo complete iron decks, the whole of the openings in which

mu

In fine weather

com-

can

freely for supplies of best bars, charcoal sheets, and tin-plates; The United States are still inquiring for hoops. Horseshoe bars of the best quality are in good request for the Australians, and a few select bar firms are receiving satisfactory lines.

The home trade is still marked by the purchasing of small lots* and the best consumers are the galvanisers, the constructive ironwork firms, and the Midland hardware manufacturers. Plates rule dull, and the competition in these goods and in angles, and in some other sections of engineering iron from the North of England, Lancashire, and North Staffordshire ironmasters, continues severe. The production of sheets will, it is understood, be shortly increased by the starting of two works now standing. Prices of sheets are unsteady on the basis of £6 easy for 24 gauge for galvanising purposes, and £7 easy for 27 gauge.

Black sheets of the Woodford brand are quoted £7 for 20 B.G.; £8 10s. for 21 and 24 gauge; £10 for 25 and 26 gauge; and £1010s. for 28 gauge; Woodford Crown sheets are £9 10s. for 20 gauge; and £11 for 24 gauge; while Woodford best are £11 for 20 gauge; £12 10s. for 24 gauge; and £14 for 26 gauge. Woodford treble best are £14 10s., £16, £17 10s., and £18, according to gauge, while Woodford charcoal are £16, £17 10s., £19, and £1910s. according to gauge. Siemens-Martin steel sheets are £13 for 20 gauge; £1310s. for 24 gauge; £16 for 26 gauge; and £16 10s. for 28 gauge.

In the bar trade prices are without change on the basis of £7 for marked sorts, and the tendency is in buyers’ favour. Medium qualities are £6, and some of the marked makers are doing a fair business in this quality. Very fair chain now is to be bought at a little over £5, whilst other unmarked qualities are offered at £415s., the lowest figures known in the trade for many years.

Messrs. E. T. Wright and Sons, of Monmoor Ironworks, quote:—Monmoor bars, £6 10s.; best, £7 10s.; double best, £8 10s.; best rivet iron, £8; double best, £9; angles, £7, £8, and £9, according to quality; and tees, £7 10s., £8 10s., and £9 10s. Hoops of 16 and 19 w.g. are £6 15s.; 20 w.g. of gin., £7 5s.; and fin., £8 5s. Sheets the firm quote as £7 10s. for Monmoor singles, £8 10s. for best, £9 10s. for best best, and £14 for char

on

coal qualities. Boiler plates of 5 cwt. each are £8 to £9; treble best to 4 cwt. each, £11; special quality for flanging to 3 cwt., £14 10s.; and charcoal qualities, £16. The “Wright” qualities of the same firm are 10s. less than the above quotations.

The Pelsall Coal and Iron Company quote P.C. bars, £5 5s. P.C. hoops, £5 10s.; Crown bars, £6; Crown hoops, £6 5s. Crown sheets, £6 15s.; charcoal sheets, £13 15s.; hinge strip, £6 5s.; gas strip, £5 5s.; and nail strip, 24in. wide, to 13 gauge, £5 5s.; all at works.

In the pig iron trade, although most buyers who were prepared to speculate have by their operations of the past several weeks brought forward as far as they care to, yet a fair amount of addi* tional forward business may still be done between now and the quarterly meetings, if sellers of Midland and similar brands will accept prices which recommend themselves to buyers. Best native all-mine pig retains its full value at 75s. to 80s. for cold-blast sorts, while hot-blast sorts are 52s. 6d. to 57s. 6d. Part-mines vary from 35s. to 40s., and common sorts do not realise much over 30s. Midland pigs stand at 34s. to 35s. for Derbyshires, and 38s. for Lincolnshires. Hematites are 503. and 52s. 6d. The Ulver-stone brand is quoted 54s.

That the real feelings of the bulk of the ironworkers on strike at the Cyclops Works, Walsall, are opposed to their present actions may be gathered from complaints which are this week being made. A report was current that the men had compromised with the masters, and had accepted their terms. Immediately the agitators, who have played such an important part in the dispute, vigorously set to work, and any wavering which the men had shown was at checked. The operatives, however, are openly complaining at this interference by the agitators, and about 200 hands are said to be willing to start work.

The combined influences of the late holidays and of the coming elections are not favourable to home business in the North Staffordshire iron trade. On export account, however, orders are arriving rather more freely, but they are not sufficient to compensate for the rather lessened inquiries from home merchants. These latter are chiefly for small parcels, and the prices which are offered for them are anything but satisfactory. Makers are hoping that on the conclusion of the elections nothing will intervene between them and business, and that the improvement which has already foreshadowed itself in the United States will make its appearance in this country in earnest.

Messrs. Nettlefolds, Birmingham, have proceeded so far with the erection of their important new iron and steel and wire works at Newport, Monmouthshire, which is to supersede the company’s present large works in Shropshire, that they hope to commence operations before the end of the year. The necessity for taking such a step, if they are to hold their own against foreign competition, has been made abundantly clear. The tables of costs which the firm got out show conclusively that Shropshire is not the place to make the particular material which they are now using in their wire and screw and nail businesses. At the Newport Works they will be able not only to manufacture at a cheaper rate, but they will also save land carriage.

Messrs. Nettlefolds announce that the reductions which they made recently in the price of screws has had the desired effect. The markets in which they have been undersold by the continental makers are returning to them, and the decline of orders has been stopped. If the Germans and Belgians should again attempt to undersell them, Messrs. Nettlefolds are quite prepared to make another reduction. For many years they have been improving their machinery, with a view to reducing the cost of production, and they now claim to be in a position to defy competition.

High-pressure engines for torpedo boats and torpedo catchers, compressed air reservoirs, and other machinery, are being turned out with much steadiness for the Admiralty by Messrs. George Beilis and Co. Overtime has for several months past been run by this concern. Screwing tackle of miscellaneous description is being turned out to Government order at certain other of the Birmingham engineering shops.

At Wellington, Shropshire, on Thursday, three men were charged with intimidating two men who have been working at the Shropshire Ironworks, Hadley, at which a strike has long been in operation. Two of the prisoners were sentenced to six weeks’ imprisonment each, the third being sent to gaol for a month.

once

THE IRON, COAL, AND GENERAL TRADES OF BIRMINGHAM, WOLVERHAMPTON, AND OTHER DISTRICTS.

NOTES FROM LANCASHIRE.

(From our own Correspondent.)

Midsummer-Day does not find the ironworks with any abundance of orders, but rather finds ironmasters remarking upon the difficulties of getting in specifications, and upon the smallness of new orders. The inactivity of last week has not necessitated any extra pressure this week. The approaoh of the end of the half year is not favourable to the giving out of fresh business, as buyers are aiming at limiting this month’s accounts.

The oncoming of the Midsummer quarterly meetings, too, which are fixed for a fortnight hence in Wolverhampton and Birmingham, tends to further influence buyers to postpone operations. It is not assumed that prices will show much alteration, still purchasers are indisposed to anticipate. The market regards it as pretty certain that all-mine hot-blast pig iron will be re-declared at the nominal quotation of 55s. to 60s., and hot-blast pigs at 75s. to 80s., and that marked bars will be re-announced as £7 12s. 6d. for those of the Earl of Dudley, and £7 for those of the other list houses.

In the export trade, Australia and India are the principal customers for sheets and tin-plates, while the inquiries from South America are confined to a large extent to cheap bars and tin-plates, United States buyers are negotiating a little more

(From our own Correspondent.)

Manchester. —-Business is so altogether in an unsettled condition that it is of little use attempting a trade report in the ordinary sense of the term. For a whole week, in the immediate district of Manchester, there has been an almost complete suspension of business, iron and engineering works and collieries in many instances only on Wednesday getting again into full operation after the Whitsuntide holidays. In addition to this the holidays crowd upon the usual half-yearly stock-takings at many concerns, whilst attention is being still further diverted from trade by the excitement consequent upon the approaching Parliamentary elections. Altogether there is a combination of circumstances which, in the best of times, would be more than sufficient to unsettle the market; in the present condition of trade it simply puts a stop to business of any weight being entertained, and for the next week or so at least there is little or nothing in the shape of transactions of any moment that can be looked forward to.

At the Manchester iron market on Tuesday there was a nominal resumption of business after the holidays. There was a fair attendance on ’Change, but very little actual business attempted. So far as there was anything to test the market the tone seemed to be weaker than before the holidays, and for prompt delivery and cash there are sellers at such excessively low figures that quite a serious aspect is given to the future. As regards pig iron, any attempt to quote fixed prices would be altogether misleading*

was

(From our own Correspondent.)

The attendance at the Cleveland iron market, held at Middlesbrough on Tuesday last, was better than usual, but there was little animation, and prices were not quite so firm as at the end of last week. This was no doubt owing in great measure to the unfavourable reports received from Glasgow, and to the falling-off of shipments from the Tees. The price of No. 3 g.m.b. for prompt delivery was 29s. 6d. per ton, as quoted by merchants, but in some cases sales were made at 29s. 4^d. Makers ask 30s. per ton, and even more is given for special brands. Some buyers are willing to give 30s. for No. 3, for delivery to the end of the year, but neither merchants nor makers are eager to commit themselves so far ahead.

The actual business done is consequently very small, and mainly for prompt delivery. For grey forge iron 28s. 6d. per ton is the usual quotation.

Holders of warrants are less anxious to sell now that the outlook is a little more hopeful, and refuse to part with them unless they can get 29s. 9d. per ton.

Messrs. Connal and Co.’s stocks of pig iron continue steadily to increase both at Middlesbrough and Glasgow. At Middlesbrough they, held on Monday last 250,108 tons, being an increase of 8835 tons during the month. In their Glasgow store they had 777,610 tons, being an increase of 8316 tons. Their total stock is 1,027,718 tons, and the total value thereof is nearly two million pounds.

Shipments of pig iron from the Tees have not been altogether satisfactory this month. Up to Monday last the quantity exported was 47,319 tons, being about 3000 tons less than for the corresponding portion of last month, and about 10,000 tons less than June last year. Scotland is still taking a fair quantity, but Germany, Holland, and the other foreign ports are not nearly such good customers as they used to be.

The demand for iron plates does not improve. The prices quoted are £4 10s. to £4 12s. 6d. per ton, free on trucks, makers’ works, Theke has been more shipping of rails, bars, and sleepers according to specification, less 2| per cent, discount. Inquiries for during the last few days, and larger consignments of foreign o re bars and angles are more numerous than they have been for some coming to hand, so that the appearance of things is a trifle better time, and prices are slightly better in consequence. Common bars than it was at the various steel works, are offered at £4 10s. per ton, and angles at £4 5s. Steel plates A good cargo of rails has left for Canada, another for Africa, and angles are in fair request. The former can be bought of ship- and smaller ones for France and New \ ork. The one to Canada building quality at £6 5s. per ton, and the latter at £6 2s. 6d., free was for Montreal, and reminded one of old times, as it amounted on trucks at makers’ works, cash, less 2£ per cent, discount.    to 2000 tons.    .

The Stockton and Middlesbrough Water Board seem to be in Certain works are going ahead in preparation for the steel some trouble with respect to the new reservoir which is being made sleeper trade, and it is suggested that possibly railways after their for them at Hury by Messrs. Walter Scott and Co., contractors, holiday excursion season will have more heart to go into the Newcastle, under the direction of Mr. Mansergh. According to a renewal of wooden sleepers by steel, which, authorities say, is only report presented to them by their engineer, the contractors have a question of time.

sent in a claim for extra payment, on the ground that the concrete It is pleasant to see a little start at the Pentyrch Anchor \i orks, case of the dam has required to be taken much deeper than was an(I tolerable business being done at Jenkins s Steel Works and the thought necessary when the contract was made. They say, Britannia.    .

further, that unless some satisfactory arrangement is come to as Shipbuilding, dry dock companies, and works in connection with regards payment for the extra work, they will be compelled to the shipping industry are dull. There are loud complaints, and as suspend operations. The engineer, after having looked care- Cardiff coal export totals fell off again last week, the grumbling is fully into all the circumstances of the case, is of opinion increased. There was an enormous collection of laden coal wagons that some readjustmust of the contract is necessary, and at Cardiff on Saturday, both of house and steam. At Swansea should be made, in order to avoid any stoppage, which just also, which did a good coal business in the previous week, there now would have a disastrous effect. He recommends that an was a falling away, and generally, as indeed is common at this extra sum of £4131 2s. should be paid to the contractors. The time of the year, the coal trade is dull. This the elections promise chairman—Mr. T. H. Bell—advised the adoption of Mr. Mansergh’s to intensify, and coalowners and shippers are resigned to a con-recommendation. If the board decided otherwise, they would tinuation of quietness for some time.

either have to re-let the work to another contractor or take it in Coalowners tell us that their chief complaint is not so much the hand and finish it themselves. In either case they would lose more failure of doing business as of getting customers to have their orders money than the extra now asked for, besides sacrificing a great deal    executed. Coalowners cannot    force    the execution, as they know

of valuable time. Eventually, after much discussion, it was    very well that when buyers    want    their . purchases,    they will

decided to refer Mr. Mansergh’s letter to a special meeting of the demand them in quick time. Prices remain in the old rut, ranging Works Committee.    according to quality from 7s. 6d. to 8s. 9d. steam coal. Cwmpennar

On the 17th inst. Messrs. Wm. Gray and Co., of West Hartle- district is more brisk of late, pool, launched an iron screw steamer specially built for carrying A good vein of coal has also been struck by a company formed petroleum in bulk from Black Sea ports to London. She is 268ft. at Pentyrch. The coal is house coal, of the best quality. It is long by 36ft. broad by 20ft. deep, and is fitted up with tanks, so stated that the Transatlantic Colliery, one of the finest in the Garw arranged and connected that the oil can expand as the temperature district, has been bought by Powley Thomas and Co. rises without exerting undue pressure or overflowing. If any cargo    Patent fuel is quieter at Swansea,    and only a little    over 4000

other than petroleum be required to be carried, the tanks can be    tons were exported last week.

utilised. The total capacity is equivalent to 513,576 gallons, or Pitwood maintains its improvement all round, and prices are 1960 tons weight. It is intended to bring both the lighter or firm at 16s. 6d. Steam, small, is in good requirement at 5s. burning oils and the heavier or lubricating oils. Two powerful The tin-plate trade appears to be on the edge of one of those Worthington steam pumps, capable of discharging all the tanks spirited advances which now and then characterise the trade. Not in about twelve hours, are conveniently placed. The bottom of only are prices firmer, but advancing, and in several instances the vessel is built on the cellular principle, the space between the makers of good brands have refused business even at^an advance, inner and outer plating being available for water ballast. The pro- The shipment from Swansea last week amounted to 60,000 boxes, pelling engines are of the triple expansion type. They have been and the stocks held show, a decrease of 17,000 boxes, make not made by the Central Marine Engineering Company, and are being up to sales. This is a promising condition. I am not far capable of driving the ship at a speed of lOj knots per hour.    from the mark in stating that Swansea does not hold half the stock

A most unfortunate accident occurred at Messrs. T. Richardson it did Quotations range from 13s. 6d. America has been a free and Sons’ marine engine works, Hartlepool, on Friday last. A buyer this week.    ,

boiler weighing, it is said, 50 tons, was being lifted from a lighter Large building speculations are being projected in the neighbour-on to the adjacent quay by means of a powerful shear-leg appa- hood of Harris’s Navigation, and also at Cwmpennar, which looks ratus, when the latter, through the breakage of a screw, gave way. hopeful.

A chain attaching it to some rails tore them up, one of them I must note the final annals of the Bute Docks (Further Powers) striking the foreman labourer, named Robert Leffrage, on the head Bill. All opposition has been withdrawn, the construction of the and killing him on the spot. Mr. Wyllie, the manager, who was new pier abandoned to meet the wishes of Lord Windsor, and the present, was also struck and had his leg broken.    Bill reported for third reading.

Ayr, 10,806;

Irvine, 2351; Troon, 8551; Burntisland, 24,188; Leith, 3017; Grangemouth, 10,550; and Bo’ness, 7494 tons. Prices of all sorts of coals are unsatisfactory. In Fifeshire there has been a decided improvement in the demand, particularly and principally for Baltic ports. But neither here nor elsewhere has any advance been obtained in prices.

The coalmasters as well as the ironmasters are reducing the wages of the miners, and several meetings have been held in the West of Scotland to protest against the reduction. At Mother-well, where 6d. a day has been deducted, there was a largely attended meeting, at which it was resolved to recommend that the men work only five days a week and eight hours a day.

For very small parcels makers may occasionally get something near their lut rates, but in most cases they are open to offers, and the actu »1 selling prices, where anything like quantities are concerned, have little or no relation to what are termed the current market rates. Where business is done it is very much a matter of special bargain between buyer and seller, the terms of which are very rarely allowed to transpire publicly, and for the moment there is so little doing that there are really no prices that can be quoted.

In the manufactured iron trade there is practically no change to report. Makers still have great difficulty in securing small hand-to-mouth orders sufficient to keep their forges going about half-time, and prices remain on the basis of about £4 17s. 6d. to £5 per ton for bars, £5 7s. 6d. to £5 10s. for hoops, and about £0 10j. for sheets delivered into the Manchester district, with a weak tone even at these low figures.

Here and there in small odd jobs there seems to be a little more Stirling amongst some of the engineers in this district, and one occasionally comes across more hopeful reports, but taking the various branches of the engineering trade generally, there is no actual improvement; the weight of new work giving out is still very small, and slackness of trade continues the general complaint.

Messrs. Vaughan and Son, of West Gorton, Manchester, have just introduced an improved rope-power overhead travelling crane, which I had an opportunity this week of seeing in operation at their works. The power is conveyed to this crane by means of an endless high-speed cotton rope, deflected over grooved pulleys; and backward and forward motions to the various driving shafts are transmitted by means of straight and crossed belts under the command of the attendant. In fact, the whole of the machinery is under the complete control of the attendant, who is suspended in a cage underneath the crane, where he has an unobstructed view of the shop floor, and by means of levers he can put all the shafts into movement at once or independently, as may be required. The crane was manipulated with greatest ease and readiness, either for travelling along the shop, traversing the lifting crab backwards or forwards across the crane, and for lifting or lowering any weights that were attached. Amongst one or two special features that have been introduced are quick and slow lifting speeds to the main barrel, and there is an auxiliary barrel fitted with a single chain for lifting at a quick speed light weights equal to 20 per cent, of the crane’s maximum power, whilst the lowering speeds of both barrels are about 60 per cent, quicker than the hoisting speeds. Another special feature is that the main barrel is provided with a right and a left-hand groove, so that by the coiling of the two ends of the chain into these grooves a true vertical lift is insured, whilst the middle part of the chain, being carried by a cross bar above, there are four chains in equal tension which carry the load. The central support for the shafts is also a very ingenious and simple arrangement, which has been patented by Messrs. Vaughan. A guide is fixed to the crab, which, as it traverses the crane, actuates a wedge, which draws down the support until the crab has passed and then brings it back into position, where, so long as it remains undisturbed by the action of the crab, it affords a positive support to the shaft. By the free use of steel and wrought iron in the construction of the crane, lightness of build, with at the same time ample margin for strength, has been secured, and Messrs. Vaughan have certainly designed a crane which will be found a very useful addition to workshop plant.

The passing of the Manchester Ship Canal Interest Bill has, of course, been received with a great deal of satisfaction in this district, and very confident opinions are expressed pretty generally that any serious difficulty which has hitherto stood in the way of raising the required capital has now been removed.

In the coal trade, so far as the immediate district of Manchester is concerned, there has been little or nothing doing during the past week. Works have in some cases been closed for even a longer period than the collieries, and there has consequently been an almost complete cessation of requirements for iron-making and steam purposes, whilst for house-fire consumption there has naturally been very little buying going on during the holidays. Prices, although they cannot be said to be firm, remain without material alteration, and at the pit mouth average about 8s. 6d. per ton for best coals, 7s. to 7s. 6d. for second qualities, 4s. 9d. to 5s. 3d. for common coal, 3s. 9d. up to 4s. 3d. for the best qualities of slack, and 2s. 6d. to 3s. per ton for the common sorts.

In the shipping trade there has also been only a very slow business doing, and the prices at which common round coals can be bought at the Mersey ports are extremely low; delivered at the high level, Liverpool, or the Garston Docks, there is no difficulty in getting steam coal at about 6s. 6d. to 6s. 9d. per ton.

Barrow.—There is a firmer tone in all branches of the hematite pig iron trade this week, and several large contracts are reported as having been secured by makers at full prices, which are firmly held. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Bessemer are quoted at 42s. per ton net at makers’ works, and No. 3 forge and foundry iron at 41s. per ton. In the latter there is a very slow business, but there is a fuller trade in Bessemer qualities, and as the demand for steel is fully maintained, makers are likely to require fuller deliveries during the remainder of the season. Stocks have been reduced, but still they represent a large amount of iron. This, however, is likely to be disposed of to a large extent, and it is possible, if not probable, that the output of iron will soon have to be increased by the blowing in of some of the furnaces which are now out of blast. It is a significant fact that most of the large works which are favourably situated are well off for orders, and have at the same time disposed of the stocks which they have held for a considerable time. The rail mills are busy, and are likely to continue so during the summer months. This activity is observable alike in the rail trade, and in the tin-plate bar trade, but other branches of the steel trade are quiet. Shipbuilders are in a very quiet position. They are booking no new orders, and the new work which is out for tender is not only limited in extent, but there is a considerable amount of competition which makes it impossible to secure contracts under existing circumstances at a profit. Iron ore is in quiet demand. (Joal and coke steady. Shipping fairly employed, but freights are low and unremunerative.

THE SHEFFIELD DISTEICT.

(From our own Correspondent.)

We are in the midst of a general election, and in the rural districts the excitement next week will be even worse than it is now in the borough. The chief comfort is that the struggle will be short and sharp, and business will, in three weeks, resume its wonted condition. The present turmoil is adversely affecting many of the smaller industries, which depend largely upon the country markets. In the heavier departments it has little appreciable influence.

In the Rotherham district it is reported that there is a fair demand for plates of the best quality, and one large company there is pretty well employed—a condition of things which is regarded as satisfactory in the present exceptional state of the iron trade. Prices, however, keep very low, and even at these low quotations there is difficulty in booking orders beforehand. Stove grates have long been an important feature of the Rotherham trade. A slight improvement is reported. The style which came in some time ago—tiles and brass—keeps a firm grip of the market. There have been rather better inquiries for steel goods among the firms in these parts, and there seems some reason to anticipate a better demand for these classes of goods.

It is said that the Midland Railway Company contemplates laying down steel sleepers for experimental purposes. I cannot hear that this applies to the Sheffield district. It is true, I believe, that the company is putting steel sleepers to the test Kettering way, and it is probable that on the result of that experiment may depend their adoption on other portions of the permanent way.

An incident occurred to the well-appointed “special express,” which left King’s Cross for Manchester at 2 p.m. on Tuesday.

This is the best train of the day, doing the distance between London and Sheffield in three hours and twelve minutes. Only one stoppage—at Grantham—is made; but on Tuesday the train was drawn up at Retford, where the engine was taken off and another substituted. It was explained that a tube had burst coming down from Grantham. The companies—Great Northern and Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire—keep an extra engine at Retford for emergencies, and it was therefore only necessary to make a short delay. Indeed, the express reached Sheffield not quite fifteen minutes late.

Mr. James Sedgwick, of Danesmoor, Clay Cross, tinman and brazier, in the employ of the Clay Cross Company, has patented a novelty in miners’ safety lamps. The improvement consists of a nickel silver reflector attached to the screw that holds the lamp glass in the lamp, and rises near to and around the light, thus greatly improving the illumination. A trial in the Clay C Company’s pit has proved that it casts the light three yards further away from the lamp than without the reflector. The reflector is so constructed that it acts as a preventive to breaking the glass by the screwing or unscrewing the same, and can be used with any kind of lamp. The Clay Cross Company has several hundreds of them in use, and the miners are said to regard the invention as most useful.

In spite of all the lessons given against carelessness in mines, cases of foolhardiness are constantly recurring in the most dangerous seams. At one colliery a man, whose duty it was to see that the lamps were sent out in a clean and proper state, supplied to a workman a lamp which had the glass cracked. The workman handed it back again, and the man put in a new glass. The miner then took it into the pit, and was met by a deputy, who examined it, and found that it had not the gauze upon it. A deputy stated that as the lamp was sent into the pit it was no better than a naked light. The man guilty of this negligence was sent to gaol for a month without the option of a fine. A Barnsley collier was fined 40s. and costs for neglecting to sprag every two yards of coal he worked; and another miner, for unramming a shot which had missed fire, was fined 20s. and costs.

On Monday afternoon the first sod of a new coal shaft in connection with the silkstone seam of the Norfolk Colliery, belonging to Messrs. Newton, Chambers, and Co., was turned near to Thorpe Hesley. The depth of the new pit will be from 220 to 230 yards, the diameter 13ft. outside the brick lining, which is to be carried all the way down. The sinking is to be carried on by means of dynamite exploded by simultaneous blasting by electricity, which the contractors, Messrs. Walker and Foulstone, have adopted successfully at other places.

THE NOETH OF ENGLAND.

NOTES EEOM SCOTLAND.

(From our own Correspondent.)

The condition of the Glasgow pig iron market has been less satisfactory this week than last. The upward movement in prices has not been maintained. At the beginning of the present week, indeed, the market became flat, and the quotations manifested a tendency to decline. Although this backward movement was arrested by the damping of four furnaces, the inquiry was comparatively poor, and the amount of business not at all encouraging. An additional furnace has been put in blast at Carron. There are now 81 furnaces in blast, as compared with 91 at this date last year. But several of those that have been put out are likely to be relighted shortly. The week’s addition to stock in Messrs. Connal and Co.’s stores amounts to about 3300 tons. The past week’s shipments of pigs amounted to 8991 tons, as compared with 6946 in the preceding week, and 7957 in the corresponding week of 1885.

Business was done in the warrant market on Friday last at 38s. 9d. cash. Monday’s market was quiet, at 38s. 7^d. to 38s. 9d. cash. On Tuesday forenoon transactions occurred at 38s. 9d. to 38s. 9^d. cash, the quotations in the afternoon being 38s. 8£d. to 38s. 6£d. cash. Wednesday’s market was quiet, with a slight improvement in prices, which further advanced this—Thursday— forenoon to 38s. lOd. cash, but receded at the close to 38s. 6^d. The decline is due to four Monkland furnaces being again put in blast, the miners having accepted reduction, and the lighting up of five furnaces at Calder after repair of machinery.

The values of makers’ pigs were in certain cases advanced towards the end of last week, but it is not so easy now to obtain the full prices:—Gartsherrie, f.o.b. at Glasgow, per ton, No. 1, is quoted at 43s. per ton ; No. 3, 41s.; Ooltness, 47s. and 43s.; Langloan, 43s. 6d. and 41s.; Summerlee, 46s. and 41s.; Calder, 46s. 6d. and 41s.; Carnbroe, 42s. 6d. and 39s. 6d.; Clyde, 42s. 6d. and 39s. 6d.; Monkland, 39s. 6d. and 36s.; Quarter, 39s. 6d. and 35s. 6d.; Govan, at Broomielaw, 39s. 6d. and 36s.; Shotts, at Leith, 44s. and 43s.; Carron, at Grangemouth, 47s. 6d. and 44s. 6d.; Kinneil, at Bo’ness, 43s. 6d. and 42s. 6d.; Glengarnock, at Ardrossan, 43s. and 40s.; Eglinton, 39s. 6d. and 36s. 6d.; Dalmellington, 40s. 6d. and 38s.

The wages question is now occupying a considerable amount of attention in the iron trade. Taking into account the manner in which the working classes have been living, current wages are none too high. But there is a wide-spread impression that the time has come when the men will have to decide between smaller wages and no employment whatever. The Coltness Iron Company has had considerable difficulty in effecting the reduction of wages; or, perhaps I should rather say that the miners were at first inclined to resist it by staying away from work. I now hear that they are thinking better of the matter. But in the case of the miners in the employment of the Monkland Iron Company there has been at once a strike and a lock out. The men left their work rather than accept the reduced pay, and on account of the stoppage of the men the company has damped down all the four furnaces at Calderbank, and practically stopped the making of pigs for the time. It is not believed that the men will long hold out in these circumstances.

The shipments of iron and steel manufactured goods from Glasgow in the past week embraced locomotives worth £8500; machinery, £5300; steel, £5821 ; and general iron manufactures, £33,500: the latter including sleepers, &c., to the value of £10,740 for Calcutta, and £4390 worth of pipes, bars, and tubes, for Bombay.

There has been a fair business this week in the shipment of coals from the different Scotch ports. The quantity dispatched from Glasgow, was 25,461 tons ; Grennock, 30;

WALES AND ADJOINING COUNTIES.

(From our own Correspondent.)

(From our own Correspondent.)

New Yoke, June 12th.

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Engineering Society, King’s College, London.—At a general meeting held on Tuesday, June 15th, the president, Mr. W. H. Collis, in the chair, a paper “ On Electric Railways ” was read by Mr. W. P. Adams. After a few preliminary remarks, the author began by describing Mr. Reckenzaun’s arrangements for using accumulators for the propulsion of tramcars. Several lines in which a third central rail is used for the passage of the current were then described—the Brighton Railway, Mr. Holroyd Smith’s tramway system, which was noticed at length, and the experimental lines on the overhead railways of New York, being mentioned as instances. The Portrush Railway was then fully described, and Mr. Danchell’s air rail system met with the special attention the author considered to be its due. Mr. Adams then spent some time in considering the prospects and advantages of electricity as a means of locomotion, and pointed out his reasons for believing that when electricity is introduced for railway travelling a special form of line will be used which will develope the advantages it possesses over other agents, and that for fast travelling some such system as Mr. Danchell’s will be used. A model locomotive was kindly lent by Mr. Danchell to illustrate the part of the paper devoted to his system.

Society of Engineers.—During the session 1885-86, Professor Francis Elgar, LL.D.,F.R.S.E., has been nominated Honorary Member of the Society of Engineers, and the following gentlemen have been elected as Members, viz.:— Messrs. Joseph Johnson Angus, Walter Joseph Baker, William Bland, Richard Callon, Charles Claude Carpenter, James Chambers, Adolph Gothard Christiansen, Charles Augustus Copland, Henry Albert Cutler, George Dalton, Samuel Brothers Darwin, Basil Pym Ellis, Walter Fletcher Gardner, Daniel Ford Goddard, Joseph Henry Goolden, Frederick Holt, Henry William Jewell, Robert Hesketh Jones, Philip Middleton Justice, Frederick Edward Linging, Edwin Lucas, William Arena Martin, Robert Masefield, Frank Mead, Whiston Powell Morison, James Richards, Herman Alfred Roechling, George Boleyne Smedley, George Throssel, Thomas Spencer Tilley, and Ernest Frederick Whalley Wilkinson. As Foreign Members: Cunninghame Wilson Moore and William Shotton. As Associates: John Aird, jun., Frederick George Dexter, Ernest Docwra, William Griffiths, William Theodore Lucy, Charles Albert Rigby, and Charles Gordon Ring. Messrs. Roland Watson Carrington, Samuel Herbert Cox, James William Restler, and Thomas Forth Rotherham have been transferred from Associates to Members. There have therefore been added to the Society during the session 1 Honorary Member, 33 new Members, and 7 new Associates. The volume of the Society’s “ Transactions” for the year 1885, lately issued, contains a complete index of authors’ names and subjects of papers from 1861 to 1884,

THE PATENT J0UENAL.

June \hth, 1886.

AMERICAN NOTES.

Western railroad builders have been in Wall-street some time endeavouring to borrow 12,000,000 dols. to push railway construction west of the Mississippi river. Negotiations are slowly progressing, because investors are more than usual suspicious of new enterprises. A committee of the Vessel Owners and Captain’s National Association have just issued instructions to the captains of coastwise coal-carrying vessels to leave this port for the next thirty days and try for freights elsewhere. Orders for coal are light at present. The scarcity of avenues for the employment of capital is becoming more and more apparent. A large volume of money is idle in this city. Sufficient opportunities are presented for railway investments, but American investors themselves are showing less willingness to throw millions into enterprises which will not pay dividends for five or ten years to come. Mexican mineral properties are coming into notice, and all details concerning the immense value of the unknown deposits of Northern Mexico are read with interest. The drawback heretofore has been that none of the Mexican properties worked because of the lack of railway facilities, the lack of proper machinery, the general suspiciousness of investors, and so forth. A syndicate of the Mexican National Exploring Mining Company was organised some time ago to overcome the obstacles which have for a long time interfered with legitimate enterprise in Northern Mexico. This syndicate is the owner of twenty or thirty valuable properties containing silver, lead, copper, and iron mines, most of it within easy reach or on the line of the Mexican National Kailroad. The Mexican Guadalupe Mining Company are owners of six silver and lead mines in one of the Northern Mexican States on the line of the Mexican National, which are shipping large quantities of bullion to St. Louis. This company has been shipping bullion from Mexican bankers to Liverpool, Harden Have-meyer, and Manchester, but a more profitable market is now found for the entire output of these mines at home. American capital is greatly interested in the developments in these regions. Companies are about being formed to operate some of the mines, of which there are uncontestable evidences of immediate and abundant returns. One company has completed facilities for the shipping of 10,000 tons of low grade ore per month. None of these properties are listed, and comparatively little is known of them outside the parties immediately interested. The mineral possessions already secured are extremely valuable from careful reports made, and a large amount of capital will no doubt be thrown into that region during the next six or twelve months.

NEW COMPANIES.

Thk following companies have just been registered :—

Blackburn Corporation Tramways Company, Limited.

This company was registered on the 16th inst. with a capital of £75,000, in £10 shares, to construct and work tramways at or near Blackburn, Lancashire. The subscribers are:—

Shares.

C. Gourtney Crump, 1, Boscombe-road, Uxbridge-

road, engineer................

W. Lyster Holt, C.E., 17, Parliament-street ..    20

W. A. Cubitt, 398, Uxbridge-road........

R. Stevens, 65, Cannon-street, licensed vic-

1 ualler....................

W. Stevens, 65, Cannon-street, licensed victualler ....................

N. Claydon, 269, Uxbridge road ........

A. Love, 281, Goldhawk-road, W.........

The number of directors is not to exceed seven; qualification, £300 in shares; the subscribers are to appoint the first; remuneration, £350 per annum.    _

Bower's Patents Syndicate, Limited.

Upon terms of an agreement of the 20th ult. (unregistered) between Wm. Finney Bower and F. W. Stancomb, this company proposes to purchase an invention for improvements in means for cooling liquids, and in apparatus therefor (Provisional Protection, dated 12th February, 1886, No. 2056). It was incorporated on the 11th inst. with a capital of £6000, in £5 shares. The subscribers are:—

Share*.

S. J. Elder, 6, Bessborough-gardens, S W., accountant ..................

W. F. Bower, 56, Peckham Park-road, engineer 2 W. McCulloch, C.E., 26, Hartham-road, Hornsey 2

H. S. Baker, 122, Dartmouth Park-hill, Upper

Holloway, shorthand writer..........

F. W. Stancomb, 9, Old Broad-street, accountant 1 J. H. Bateman, 34, Shelgate-road, New Wandsworth, accountant.............. 1

H. Phillips, 11, Heyworth-road, Hackney-downs, accountant

Table A of the Companies’ Act, 1862, will

apply-    _

Bradford Mutual Electric Lighting Company, Limited.

This company was registered on the 10th inst. with a capital of £10,000, in £5 shares, to enable holders and tenants of premises abutting upon Kirkgate, Ivegate, New Tyrrell-street, Hustler-gate, Albion-court, Queensgate, and other detached blocks of buildings in Bradford, to cooperate in providing electric lighting. The subscribers are:—

Edward Pye, 10, Russell-terrace, Bradford, coal

merchant ..................

J. F. Schmidt, Undercliffe, Bradford, pork

butcher ..................

J. Mackrom, Bradford, joiner..........

Captain Oscar Haake, Bradford ........

J. F. Read, Bradford, restaurant keeper ..    ..    1

F. T. Schmidt, Undercliffe, Bradford, electrician 1 R. C. Douglas, Hustlergate, Bradford, engineer.. 1

Registered without special articles.

Patent Roller Razor Strop Company, Limited.

This company proposes to acquire and work the letters patent dated 10th May, 1882, granted tc* Alexander Payne, for an improved appaiatus for sharpening razors or knives, and to purchase all colonial and foreign patents granted for such invention. It was registered on the 16th inst. with a capital of £10,000, in £5 shares. The subscribers are

E. J. Culon, 93, Abingdon-road, Kensington

A. G. Payne, 1a, Exeter-street, Strand, wine

merchant ..................

E. G. Payne, East Mouleey ..........

agent ............

J. Beeman, 14, Westbury-road, W

The number of directors is not to be less than three nor more than eight; qualification, 50 shares, upon which at least £3 per share has been paid up. The company in general meeting will determine remuneration.

Devon and Cornwall Rope Manufacturing Company, Limited.

This company was registered on the 10th inst. with a capital of £6000, in £4 shares, to purchase and carry on the Sutton Ropery, Plymouth. The subscribers are:—

Shares.

The number of directors is not to be less than three nor more than seven; qualification, £100 in shares or stock. The company in general meeting will determine remuneration. Mr. H. J. Ham is appointed managing director and general agent at a salary of £100 per annum, and a commission of 5 per cent, upon the net profits after £6 per cent, dividend has been paid.

Mysore- Wynaad Consolidated Gold Mining Company, Limited.

This company was registered on the 16 th inst. with a capital of £250,000, in £1 shares, to carry on mining operations in India. The subscribers are:—

Robert Walker, J.P., Sethan-hill, Glasgow ..    ..

Alexander Brogden, J.P., 9, Victoria-chambers .. Henry Duncan, 17, Upper Wimpole-street, merchant ....................

Colonel G. B. Malleson, 27, West Cromwell-road A. G. Trew, Southville Park, Dulwich, accountant ..................

F. Richard, 8, Queea's-road, Dalston ......

L. J. Woodman, 9, New Broad-street, secretary..

The number of directors is not to be less than five nor more than seven; the subscribers are to appoint the first and act ad interim; qualification for subsequent directors, 200 shares; remuneration, £1000 per annum.

Rothwell Hosiery Company, Limited.

On the 16th inst. this company was registered with a capital of £10,000, in £10 shares, to acquire certain rights and privileges referred to in an unregistered agreement of the 2nd April between William Rothwell, of Bolton, knitting machine manufacturer, and G. A. Brockbank, of Bolton. The subscribers are :— ■’' William Rothwell, Halliwell, Lancashire, hosiery

manufacturer ................

*J. Barlow, Bolton, cotton spinner ......

G. P. Brockbank, Bolton, estate agent ..

THE PHYSICAL SOCIETY.

At the meeting of this Society on June 12th, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, vice-president, in the chair, Dr. Samuel Rideal and Mr. E. C. Wellington were elected members of the Society.

The following communications were read “ On an Electric Light Fire Damp Indicator,” by Messrs. Walter Emmott and William Ackroyd. The Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines point out in their recently issued report as a serious objection to the use of the electric light in mines, notwithstanding its many great advantages, that the light of an incandescent lamp being produced within a vacuum cannot admit of any device for the indication of fire damp, such as is given by the Davy, for example. The present apparatus is the outcome of an attempt to overcome this difficulty. It consists of two incandescent lamps—one with colourless and the other with red glass—and the circuit is bo arranged that in an ordinary atmosphere the colourless lamp alone shines, but in fire damp this goes out and the red one is illuminated. This is effected in a simple manner by the motion of a mercury contact occupying the lower part of a curved tube, one end of which is open, and the other connected with a porous pot of unglazed porcelain, the motion of the mercury being due to the increased pressure in the porous pot occasioned by diffusion. “ On a Method of Distinguishing Rays of Solar from those of Terrestrial Origin,” by Professor Cornu. It has been shown by M. Fizeau that owing to the rotation of the sun upon its axis there is a displacement of the spectral lines produced by solar absorption to wards the red or towards the violet, according as to whether the light examined emanates from those parts of the sun which are receding from or approaching us. If, however, the lines are the result of absorption by the earth’s atmosphere, no such displacement should occur. It has been the aim of the author to make this principi basis of a simple and instantaneous meth determining the origin of any given line. The displacement is very minute, amounting to about jLf °f the distance between the D lines for rays in that part of the spectrum when the light is from the extremity of the solar equator, but it has been found quite sufficient. The observations have been made with a Rowland grating, the distance of the lines being ’00176 mm.

An image of the sun is formed upon the slit of the spectroscope by a lens. By a slight oscillatory motion given to the lens by a lever from the hand any part of the sun’s image can be brought upon the slit. A heliostat sends the rays always in the same direction, and by a prism the image has its equator horizontal. To distinguish between a line of solar and one of terrestrial origin, the line is brought near the vertical wire of the eye-piece, or, better still, one of those inevitable grains of dust which are always seen on the horizontal wire. The lever connected to the lens is then oscillated so as to bring alter--nately the two ends of the solar equator tangentially upon the slit. If the ray is of terrestrial origin it remains absolutely fixed, if it is solar it oscillates with the lever. “ On a Hyperbola-graph,” by Mr. H. H. Cunnynghame. It is not nfrequent want to be able to find a rectangle of greatest or least area contained between a curve and rectangular co-ordinate axes. In several problems connected with motion and pressure in steam engines this is useful, and even in political economy the graphic representation of monopoly curves depends on maxima and minima of this nature. For the solution of such problems it is often very useful to be able to describe rectangular hyperbolas, and the author has devised a machine to effect this. It depends on a mathematical property of the rectangular hyperbola, which he believes to be new, and which is as follows:—From a fixed point let any line be drawn to meet a fixed line, and from the point of meeting draw a line perpendicular to the fixed line and equal in length to the first line. The locus of the extremity of the second line is a rectangular hyperbola, or, if from a fixed point O a line O P be drawn to meet a fixed line in a point P, and P Q be taken perpendicular to the fixed line so that OP + OQ be constant, then again the locus of Q is a rectangular hyperbola. In the machine the latter construction is mechanically and continuously carried out. A pencil, whose point corresponds in position to the point Q, slides along a rule which is carried across the paper always perpendicularly to the fixed line. A fine steel wire attached to the pencil passes once round a roller at P, and is then carried to and coiled round a similar one at O. The use of a steel wire is a special feature of the apparatus and has a great advantage over string, which, owing to the facility with which it stretches, cannot give good results. The finest wire should be used; it unrolls from the one roller as much as it laps over the other, and its use may be extended to nearly all curve drawing machines.

A voltaic cell with a solid electrolyte was exhibited by Mr. Shelford Biswell. Its construction is as follows:—Upon a plate of copper is spread a layer of quite dry precipitated sulphide of copper. If on this a clean plate of silver is placed and the cell joined up to a galvanometer, a slight deflection is observed, due to the unavoidable presence of moisture. If, however, the silver plate be covered with a slight film of sulphide of silver, by pouring on it a solution of sulphur in bisulphide of carbon and evaporating the free sulphur by heat, and then placed with the prepared side down as before, a deflection is obtained far greater than, and in the opposite direction to, the former. The resistance of the cell was very great, but was enormously reduced by compression; the electro-motive force was about "07 volt.

Condensed, from the Journal of the Commissioners oj Patents.

Applications for Letters Patent.

*** When patents have been “ communicated ” the name and address of the communicating party are printed in italics.

7935.    Stoppering Bottles, W. W. Popplewell.—(C. L. Morehouse and H. W. Rozell, United States.)

7936.    Motors, E. Butterworth, Lancashire.

7937.    Apparatus for Polishing Warp Threads, J. Burn, Bradford.

7938.    Paddles for Paddle Vessels, D. McDermid, Manchester.

7939.    Oil, Sic., Lamps, A. Neilson and J. Taylor, Glasgow.

7940.    Dog Collars, J. B. Brooks, Birmingham.

794t. Saw Sharpening Apparatus, I. Hill, Derby.

7942.    Dating and Marking Railway Tickets, Sic., J.

B. Edmondson and J. Carson, Manchester.

7943.    Treating and Finishing Woven Fabrics, T. Hardcastle, Manchester.

7944.    Connecting Pulleys, &c., to Shafts, E. Shaw, Bristol.

7945.    Portable Cooking Apparatus, T. G. Smith and R. C. Smitn, London.

7946.    Piece Rolling Boards, R. C. Perkins, Bradford.

7947.    Manufacture of Brace Ends or Tabs, J. B. Brooks, Birmingham.

7948.    Manufacture of Gut, J. McHardy, Dollar, N.B

7949.    Fixing Buttons on Cloth, &c., T. Haines, Red-ditch.

7950.    Pencil, &c., Cases, J. Wilkes and L. Myers, Birmingham.

7951.    Photographic Cameras, S. D. McKellen, Manchester.

7952.    Winches, D. W Porteous, Paisley,

7953.    Regulating Currents, W. Geipel, Edinburgh.

7954.    Water-closet Basins, T. W. Twyford, Staffordshire.

7955.    Fastening Railroad Chairs to Metallic Sleepers, C. While, Durham.

7956.    Water-closet Basins, T. W. Twyford, Staffordshire.

7957.    Garden or Lawn Roller, W. H. Williams, Birmingham.

7958.    Steam Snow Plough, J. Plenderleith, Selkirkshire.

7959.    Machine for Rolling Metals, M. Morton, Birmingham.

7960.    Stand for Use of Artists, <fcc., H. Swan, Sheffield.

7961.    Wire Staple Machines, C. L. Lasch, London.

7962.    Lacing Bearings for Corsets, Sic., H. J. Allison. — (/. C. Wilson, and H. F. Atkinson, United States.)

7963.    Colour Sensitive Photographic Emulsions, H. W. Vogel, London.

7964.    Hydraulic Engines, H. H. Lake.—(C,. W. Cooper, United States )

7965.    Apparatus for Raising, Sic., Water, H. H. Lake. —(C. W. Cooper, United States )

7966.    Secondary Batteries, E. Commelin and G. Bailbacke, C. Desmazures, A. L. de Virloy, and L. de Bousignac, London.

7967.    Atmospheric Engines, A. H. Reed.—(A. H.

Weisz, United States.)

7968.    Steam Boiler Furnaces, A. H. Reed.—(J. Ham,

United States.)

7969.    Automatic Check for Music Boxes, A. Paillard. —(A. Sueur, United States.)

7970.    Sugar Mills, M. Blake and J. Barclay, Glasgow.

7971.    Shoal Water Alarm, L. Frik, Philadelphia.

7972.    Screens for Carriages, W. M. Moore and S. Hanchett, London.

7973.    Driving Gear for Bicycles, Sic., D. G. Biggs, London.

7974.    Adding Machines, A. M. Clark.—(P. Taulson Lindholm, U.S.)

7975.    Drying Pigments, Sic., A. Buel, London.

7976.    Facilitating Multiplication, J. V. Charpantier London.

7977.    Sleeve-links, Sic., J. H. Smith, London.

7978.    Clamp for Picture Frames, M. Panon and E. Grenet, London.

7979.    Stays or Corsets, W. Cullen, London.

7980.    Covering the Surfaces of Driving Pulleys, C. Weaver and T. P. Dunn, London.

7981.    Lithographic Printing Machinery, J. Hird, London.

7982.    Covering for Umbrellas, &c., J. Frankel and L. Fisher, London.

798 Automatic Regulation of Primary Batteries, A. Serraillier, London.

7984.    Date Indicator, E. Engel, London.

7985.    Cranes, die., E. Hughes, London.

7986.    Utilising Ammoniacal Gas as a Motive Power, P. J. McMahon, London.

7987.    Scutching Flax, J. M. Grath, London.

7988.    Carburetting Apparatus, W. G. Hudson, Manchester.

7989.    Electrical Telephones, The Stanhope Company and G. L. Anders, London.

7990.    Diaphragms for Electrical Telephones, The Stanhope Company and G. L. Anders, i on don.

7991.    Air-tight Covers, E. Edwards.—(J. Liknard, Belgium )

7992.    Teaching Arithmetic, E. Edwards. — (F. Simunovic, France.)

7993.    Band Rolls for Magnesium Lamps, T. Weisser, Germany.

7994.    Fastener for Wearing Apparel, L. B. Bertram, London.

7995.    Loom Shuttles, H. H. Lake.—(/. W. Hobart, United States.)

7996.    Smoking Meat, H. J. Haddan.—(C. T. Broun, United States.)

7997.    Accumulators of Electricity, J. E. Chaume and P. Perrier, London.

7998.    Clocks, H. H. Lake.—(The Boston Clock Com-pany. United States.)

7999.    Loom Shutters, H. H. Lake.—(/. W. Hobart, United States.)

June 16Ui, 1886.

8000.    Seals for Drains, die., I. and A. Wallwork, Salford.

8001.    Fastener for Cords, A. Millin, Belfast.

8002.    Taps for Liquids, H. L. Provis, Cardiff.

8003.    Dynamo-eleciric Generators, L. B. Atkinson, W. T. Goolden, and A. P. Trotter, Halifax.

8004.    Gas Stoves for Heating Compressed Air, A. Lupton, Leeds.

8005.    Lamps for Carriages, C. Grimes, Birmingham.

8006.    Working the Rubber Rollers of Condensers, W. Cliffe, Halifax.

8007.    Propelling Carriages by Air and Electricity, W. Hutchison, Loughborough.

8008.    Screw Hauling Grip for Colliery Tubs, E. Wilkes, Bloxwich.

8009.    Rubber Dies, W. M. Shanks. Lanark.

8010.    Storing Sensitive Films on Glass, G. Caldwell, Glasgow.

8011.    Securing Brush Handles, J. Linton, IJunslet.

8012.    Gas Cooking stoves, P. Barry, Cork.

8013.    Apparatus for Receiving Coins, Sic., H. Bell, London.

8014.    Steam Cranes, M. D. Goodwin, Glasgow.

8015.    Self-acting Barrel Preserving Valve, F. Marsh, Shingay Mill.

8016.    Weight Indicating Fork, S. S. Bromhead.—(L.

Beringuier, Paris.)

8017.    Casters for Furniture, D. Doyen, London.

8018.    Salicylic Acid Esters, M. von Nencki, London.

8019.    Dynamo-electric Generating Apparatus, G. A. Smith, London.

8020.    Roasting Coffee, die., C. Erhardt, London.

8021.    Fillet Card Setting Machines, J. Haley and &. Platt, Halifax.

514

THE ENGINEER.

June 25, 1886.

8022.    Annealing Glass Tubes, &c. , M. Schrciber, Manchester.

8023.    Glass, F. 8. Shirley, London.

8024.    Picture Nails, Messrs. Hateley and Lea, Birmingham.

8025.    Cleaning Chimneys. J. T. Gough, London.

8026.    Fastening Device for the Laces of Boots and Shoes, H. C. Heard, London.

8027.    Photographic Cameras, H. N. Houghton, London.

8028.    Sanitary Towels, C. F. Rideal, 8trand.

8029.    Telephonic Instruments, H. Withy, London.

8030.    Projectiles, A. V. Newton.—(A. Nobel, France.)

8031.    Compensating for the Recoil of Guns, A. V. Newton.—(A. Nobel, France.)

8032.    Explosive Compounds, A. V. Newton.— (A. Nobel, France.)

8033.    Detonators, A. V. Newton.—(A. Nobel, France.)

8034.    Velocipedes, W. W. Ford, London.

8035.    Steering Gear of Velocipedes, W. E. Crowther, London.

8036.    Train Signalling on Railways, C. W. Pridham, London.

8037.    Lock-nuts, J. Scattergood, London.

8038.    Floating Breakwaters, D. Halpin and R. C. Rapier, London.

8039.    Coloured Paper, E. Thiebaut and C. Thiebaut, London.

8040.    Regulating Alternating Electric Currents, C. Zipernowski. M. Deri, and O. T. Blathy, London.

8041.    .Nails or Spikes, A. J. Boult.—(C. E, Manners and W. Howard, Australia.)

8042.    Application of Motive-power to Tricycles, A. J. Boult.—(/. W. McCalman, Victoria.)

8043.    Washing or Scouring Wool, A. J. Boult.—{M. M. Guizard, Spain.)

8044.    Pump Buckets, G. Wanless and F. Darling, London.

8045.    Doors or Walls of Safes, &c., W. R. Lake.—(/. M. Ledeboer, Holland.)

17th June, 1886.

8046.    Umbrella Sticks, James Wrenshaw, Upper Norwood.

8047.    Automatic Sprinklers for Extinguishing Fires, J. Fletcher, Ashton-under-Lyne.

8048.    Light Extinguishing Safety Lamp, E. W. Cleversley, London.

8049.    Velocipedes, W. Goulding, Manchester.

8050.    Protecting, &c., the Stowing of Shells and Projectiles, N. E. Porter, Liverpool.

8061. Designs of Navigable Balloons, W. N. Hutchinson, Wellesbourne.

8052.    Carriage, &e., Lamps, C. Grimes, Birmingham.

8053.    Pencils, W. Routledge, jun., Carlisle.

8054.    Eyes for Stair Rods, W. H. B. Denison, Bradford.

8055.    Cycles, C. H. Guest, Birmingham.

8056.    Wringing and Mangling Machines, R. Bygott, jun., Sandbach.

8057.    Obtaining Motive Power from Tidal Action, J. G. C. Flaus, Glasgow.

8058.    Combining Auxiliary Engines, &c., on Shipboard, A. C. Kirk, London.

8059.    Automatic Safety Lamp, B. E. Clarke, Heeley.

8060.    Safety Pit Chair, B. E. Clarke, Heeley.

8061.    Making Spiral Coils or Springs, T. E. Bond and J. M. Garland, Birmingham.

8062.    Pentagraph Machines, G. Moulton, Manchester.

8063.    Cask-tilting Apparatus, J. Westley and J. Leigh, Manchester.

8064.    Producing Fireproof Materials, A. Feldmann, London.

8065.    Dyeing Blue, &c., C. Lohmann, London.

8066.    Apparatus for Extinguishing Fires, W. Mayall, London.

8067.    Bricks, P. J. Milligan, Glasgow.

8068.    Wind or Water Motor, E.

Schulze and S. GornicH, Germany.)

8069.    Filing or Binding Correspondence, &c., S. Koester et Cie., London.

8070.    Box for the Automatic Sale, &c., of Cigarettes, &c., F. Loeb, London.

8071.    Preventing the Surreptitious Opening of Envelopes, J. R. Bennett, London.

8072.    Feeding Vapour Generators, J. Murrie, Glasgow.

8073.    Inhalers, J. McGeary, London.

8074.    Moulding of Ceramic Vessels, E. A. Cowper, London.

8075. 'Lantern Reading Lamp, W. C. Hughes, London.

8076.    Lantern Carriers, W. C. Hughes, London.

8077.    Weigh Hoppers, W. Hollinshead-Sprague, bond

8078.    Producing Metallic Drawings, H. J. Haddan. — (/. von Chelmicki, Russia.)

Supporting Combustion, A. A. Hely, London.

8080.    Feeding-bottles for Infants, J. Hix, London.

8081.    Casement Fasteners, F. A. Morgan, London.

8082.    Yeast, W. S. Squire, London.

8083.    Folding Umbrella, R. Newbery, London.

8084.    Voltaic Batteries, A. M. Clark.—(C. R. Goodwin, France.)

8085.    Electrical Thief Proof Lock, R. D. Bowman, London.

8086.    Chimney Tops, J. Haswell and J. J. Bosworth, Liverpool.

8087.    Recovering Combustible Matters from Refuse, J. C. W. Stanley, London.

8088.    Treatment of Road Sweepings, J. C. W. Stanley, London.

8089.    Protectors for Cards, &c., G. A. Hearn, London.

8090.    Ventilation for Sewers, &c., R. S. Ash, London.

8091.    Writing Machine, E. Kessels, London.

8092.    Type-writers, J. P. Smith, London.

8093.    Sewing Machines, W. P. Keeson, London.

182A June, 1886.

8094.    Applying Heat to Boilers, B. J. B. Mills. —(C. T. Burchardt, Germany.)

8095.    Looms, D. Fulton.—(La Compagnie des Fonderies et Forges de VHorme—Chantiers de la Buire, France.)

8096.    Coffee-pot, C. Blair, Tillicoultry.

8097.    Safety Lamp, S. Siemang, London.

8098.    Cutting Washers, T. Dixon, London.

8099.    Pulleys, F. L. Croft, Bradford.

8100.    Obtaining Light by Incandescence, C. Cooke, London.

8101.    Doors, J. Smith, Manchester.

8102.    Changing the Position of Coaches, T. Wood, J. Lowcock, and J. Broxup, Burnley.

8103.    Razor Strop, W. A. Brooke, Dublin.

8104.    Coffin, G. Levens, Manchester.

8105.    Spray Lamps, A. and C. Stewart, Glasgow.

8106.    Churns, E. Griffith. Wrexham.

8107.    Lining Sewers, A. Doughill, Leeds.

8108.    Switches, W. Reid, Glasgow.

8109.    Head Rests, F. Proctor, Lond

8110.    Fish-hooks, A. Stratton, Birmingham.

8111.    Weighing Machines, H. Pooley, Liverpool.

8112.    Dials, H. Pooley, Liverpool.

8113.    Securing Glass to Frames, &c., R. E. Halliday, Liverpool.

8114.    Frames, &c., R. E. Halliday, Liverpool.

8115.    Permanent Way, A. H. Rowan, London.

8116.    Wire-drawing Benches, F. C. Guilleaume, London.

8117.    Measuring, &c., Fabrics, W. H. Bortoft, London.

8118.    Barbed Wire Fencing, H. Bonten, London.

8119.    Seed Cabinet, J. Abrahams, London.

8120.    Portland Cement, 8. Lowden, London.

8121.    Hand Cutters, S. Oudit, London.

8122.    Spinning Machinery, E. Meunier, London.

8123.    Mechanical Movement, A. M. Clark.—(/. E. Adams and J. P. Warrick, United States.)

8124.    Cigarettes, A. G. Goodes, London.

8125.    Motive Power Engines, R. Lamerand, London.

8126.    Liquid Meter, J. F. H. Flandrin, London.

8127.    Fuses, T. Nordenfelt, London.

8128.    Miners’ Box, J. H. Kirby, London.

6129. Busks, &c., H. J. Haddan.—(R. Hinrichsen, Germany.)

8130.    Extracting Gold, &c., from Metals, J. Noad, London.

8131.    Guns, L. Armanni, London.

8132.    Horse-shoe Calkins, J. Neuss, sen., London.

8133.    Slip Calkins, J. Nquss, sen., London.

8134.    Hoists, G. Bentley and J. B. Jackson, London.

8135.    Engines, R. R. Gubbins, London.

8136.    Cord-holder for Blinds, &c , J. Jackson and F. Sunderland, Birmingham.

8137.    Incandescent Electric Lamps, A. Swan, Gateshead.

8138.    Marine Steam Engines, C. Henderson, Glasgow.

8139.    Lifts and Hoisting Machinery, J. Milne, sen., Bristol.

8140.    Screw-boxes for Vices, &c , J. Case. Sheffield.

8141.    Fumigating Plants and Flowers, G. Bloxham, Bletchley.

8142.    Wheel Tire, W. Fox, London.

8143.    Packing Glands, <fcc., J. Young, London.

8144.    Drainage and Drainage Works, H. R. Newton, Wey bridge.

8145.    Water-closets, W. Smeaton, sen., London.

8146.    Flushing Apparatus, W. Smeaton, sen., London.

8147.    Signalling in Hansom Cabs, &c., A. West, London.

8148.    Treatment of Paper, C. Morfit, London.

8149.    Waterproof Cloth, &c., A. C. Henderson.—(A. Purson and Co., France.)

8150.    Bath for Horses, A. C. Henderson.— (A. Purson and Co., France.)

8151.    Carbons for Electrical Purposes, J. G. Tongue. —(/. Kirby, Belgium.)

8152.    Economical and Easy Lead Glazing, H. M. Keene, Barnes.

8153.    Warehouses for the Storage of Grain, E. Fletcher, London.

8154.    Hoof Parer, S. Moon, London.

8155.    Alpha or Beta Carbonaphthol Acid Alkaline Salts, J. Y. Johnson.—(C. Kotbe and C. Rentsch, Germany.)

8156.    Helical Carbons for Electric Lamps, W. R. Johnston, London.

8157.    Regenerative Gas Retort Furnaces, O. Imray.~(F. Siemens, Germany.)

8158.    Cleaning Grain, <fcc., J. I. Booker, Liverpool.

8159.    Valves, Stop Cocks, &c., L. Roovers, Liverpool.

8160.    Varying the Speed of the Driving Wheels of Velocipedes, W. E. Crowther, London.

8161.    Cleaning or Fining Beer, Sir F. Bolton, London.

8162.    Venetian Blind Action, J. W. Dorrell, London.

8163.    Fuel, R. Stone, London.

8164.    Pin for Curling or Frizzing Air, S. Fernley, London.

8165.    Pumps Actuated by Fluid Pressure, W. Donaldson, London.

8166.    Motive-power Engines, M. Heslop. London.

8167.    Pencil Cases for Leads, &c., G. F. Redfern.— (C. Kohlein, Germany.)

8168.    Cable Railways and Cars, E. P. Alexander.— (II. W. McNeill, United States.)

8169.    Warehouses for Storing Grain, J. Wilson, London.

picture thereon by means of a jet or spray of sensitised gelatino or equivalent resistant substance or material, and afterward subjected to the action of a sand blast or other known abrading or etching process, substantially as shown and described.

340,615. Drilling Machine, Albert F. Prentice, Worcester, Mass.—Filed February 23rd, 1886.

Claim.—(X) An.upright drilling machine provided with feed racks, botn on the upright frame and the quill, in combination with operating gearing and shifting clutches mounted in connection with the head, and connecting said racks with the power feed shaft, substantially as hereinbefore described, whereby automatic feeding of the drill is interchangeably effected either by action of the head upon the upright or by action of the quill in the head, as set forth. (2) The combination, with the drill spindle, quill C, having rack C¹, upright frame A, having rack A¹, and head B, of the shaft F, the clutch sleeve Ji, carrying gear J, loose on said shaft, the clutch sleeve K, splined

boiler, as herein set forth. (2) The combination, the soda steam boiler comprising a vessel fo steam absorbing solution and a generating vessel for the water for generating steam by the heat evolved from said solution, of an evaporating vessel for centrating the said solution, a steam pipe leading from said evaporating vessel into said generating vessel, and a check valve in said pipe to prevent the return of the water from the said generating vessel to said evaporating vessel, substantially as herein described. (3) The combination, with the soda steam boiler comprising a vessel for the steam absorbing

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8170.    Sharpening the Teeth of Saw Bands, &c., T. Duncan and D. Mills, Manchester.

8171.    Wire Fencing, &c., J. B. Evans, Carlisle.

8172.    Economising Space in Racking Seal Skin, &c., B. Shaw, Halifax.

8173.    Window Sash Fasteners or Screws, E. Wilson, Yorkshire.

8174.    Cranes, H. Cheeseman, Hartlepool.

8175.    Fitting Window Sashes, <fcc., T. Howdill, Leeds.

8176.    Ornamentation of Straw and Felt Hats, &c.,

B.    Ware, Luton.

8177.    Compasses used in Drawing, A. Lloyd, Birmingham.

8178.    Convertible Perambulator and Bassinette,

C.    Dickins, Dublin.

8179.    Squeezing Lemons, C. M. Footfit, Marlow.

8180.    Folding Letters so as to do without Envelopes, W. A. Slade, London.

8181.    Electric Clocks, J. G. Lorrain, London.

8182.    Wall Decorations, F. Crawshay, London.

8183.    Driving Centrifugal Grinding Mills, G. F. Redfern.—(B. Touya, France.)

8184.    Corkscrews, H. J. Macklin and T. Parkinson, London.

8185.    Carpets, - Sallandrouze and - Sallan-

drouze, London.

8186.    Ironing Machines, F. Dowling, Stevenage.

8187.    Fetlock Boot for Horses, J. G. Tongue.— (B.

Curtis, United States )

8188.    Mowing Machines, R. Croft, London.

8189.    Telescopic Pencil-cases, &c., G. Dickman.— (Messrs. Mabie, Todd, and Bard, United States.)

8190.    Shutters for Photographic Camera Lenses, A. E. Moore, London.

8191.    Advertising, N. Brewer, London.

8192.    Lathe Chucks. M. H. Spear, London.

8193.    Withdrawal of Champagne, &c., from Bottles, W. J. Payne, London.

8194.    Fastenings for Tickets, &c., G. Tucker, London.

8195.    Operating the Knives of Reaping Machines, W. W. Burland, London.

8196.    Musical Boxes, &c., G. F. Beutner and A. A. Lateulere, London.

8197.    Doors for Bakers’ Ovens, &c., A. J. Boult.— (J. Bolvin, France )

8198.    Type-writing Machines, F. Myers, Liverpool.

8199.    Traction Engines, A. J. Boult.—(J. Leigh, Canada.)

8200.    Crushing Rolls, A. H. Beasley, London.

8201.    Mixing Substances for the Chemical Action of Gases, C. Langer, London.

8202.    Railway Chairs, A. J. Boult.—(H. H. C. Sintzenich, Canada.)

8293. Protecting Ships from the Explosions of Torpedoes, J. G. Langham, London.

8204.    Opening Swing Bridges, W. L. Wise.—(A. V. Alstein and G. V. Nieuwkuyk, Belgium.)

8205.    Gas Lamps, A. M. Clark.—(Messrs. E. Grafton and Co., France.)

8206.    Necktie and Scarf Retainer, T. H. Ades, London.

8207.    Purification of Coal Gas, &c., G. Anderson, London.

8208.    Steam Boilers, H. Corden, London.

SELE0TED AMERICAN PATENTS.

(From the United States’ Patent Office official Gazette.)

340,546. Loom-picker, Albert A. Blakeney and James S. Compton, Baltimore, Md.—Filed July 2bth, 1885. Claim.— As a new article of manufacture, a loom-picker composed of the wood of trees of the genus

[3407546]

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Eucalyptus soaked in water or oil, and having pins or rivets driven therein in diverse directions.

340,550. Method of Ornamenting Glass and other Surfaces, Edwin L. Brown, Chicago, III.—Filed September 28th, 1885.

Claim.—(1) The process of ornamenting the surfaces of glass, stone, metal, or other equivalent material by first delineating the design or picture thereon by means of a jet or sprsy of sensitised gelatine or equivalent resistant substance or material, and, secondly, submitting the surface so prepared to the action of a sand blast or other known abrading or etching process, substantially as specified. (2) Glass, stone, metal, or other equivalent material, the surface or surfaces of which are ornamented by drawing the design or

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to said shaft and having a gear K mounted thereon, the gear N, meshing with rack A¹, the shaft n, and the gears F and M, substantially as and for the purposes set forth. (3) The combination, with the gears M, P, and N and shaft F, of the sleeve K, fitted on said shaft with a spline f, and the gear K¹, longitudinally movable upon and fitted to said sleeve by a spline v, substantially as and for the purpose described. (4) In combination, substantially as described, the head B, drill spindle D, quill C, with rack C¹, the worm wheel G, clutch hub H, shaft F, clutch sleeve Ji, with gear J, clutch sleeve K, gear Ki, hand levers L, gears M, P, and N, shaft n, and rack At, substantially as and for the purposes set forth.

340,621. Cultivator Blade, Benjamin F. Roberts, Bunlap, Iowa.—Filed February 19th, 1886.

Claim.—(1) A cultivator blade of the outline and form substantially as herein shown and described— that is, having its lower edge straight, its front and rear ends parallel and inclined backward, the former being double in width of the latter, its upper edge from the front end first straight, and then running in an upward oval curve, and ending in a sloping one at the heel or rear end, and also having its upper front portion curved backward, with the central portion embraced by the oval line curved forward. (2) In

solution and a generating vessel for the water for generating steam by the heat evolved from said solution, of an evaporating vessel with a heating furnace for reconcentrating said solution, a steam pipe leading from said evaporating vessel into the soda steam boiler, for heating both the water and solution in said boiler, and a steam pipe from the vessel containing the steam absorbing solution to the chimney of said furnace, substantially as and for the purpose herein specified. (4) The combination, with the solution

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combination with the blade A, constructed as described, the strengthening plate F, provided with the pins e and/, and the standard G, having its lower end flat and provided with the slot h, as and for the purpose set forth. (3) In combination with the blade A, strengthening plate F, and standard G, the device K, consisting of a malleable grooved casting L, with eye-bolt M, washer m, and tightening nut n, for adjustably attaching the standard to tho plough bcanij as shown and described.

340,666. Steam Trap, Edward C. Haioes, Providence, R.I.—Filed November 3rd, 1884.

Claim.—In a steam trap, the combination of a case, the removable head, expansible vessel, the valve, the adjusting screw having a screw thread at its head, the bearing shoe prevented from rotation by means of the

vessel of the soda steam boiler and an evaporating apparatus for reconcentrating the said solution, of a pump and connections for transferring the solution from the said vessel to the said evaporating apparatus, and a pipe between said vessel and said evaporating apparatus for the return of the solution in a concentrated state to the said vessel, and a float valve in the latter pipe for regulating said return, all substantially as herein described.

340,820. Metal Extension Cap for Piles, Hylas Sabine, Columbus, Ohio.—Filed October 17Ih, 1885.

Claim.—(1) The combination, with a metal extension cap for piles, consisting essentially of a shaft having a tapering socket at the lower end adapted to receive the upper end of the pile, the said socketed portion of the shaft being integral with the main body of the shaft, of a wedge for expanding the upper end of the

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angular shank and loosely-fitting holding socket, and the screw cap adapted for the screw thread of the head of the adjusting screw, substantially as described. 340,718. Method of Driving Steam Engines, Moritz Honigmann, Aix-la-Chapelle, Germany.— Filed November 14th, 1885.

Claim.—(1) The combination, with a soda steam boiler comprising a vessel for containing a solution of high boiling-point, into which exhaust steam is absorbed, and a generating vessel for containing water from which steam is to be generated by the heat produced by such absorption, of an evaporating vessel for the reconcentration of said solution, and a pipe connecting said evaporating vessel and said generating vessel, substantially as herein described, for conducting the steam generated in said evaporating vessel into the water in the said generating vessel, and so utilising the heat of said steam to assist in evaporating the solution in said soda steam boiler, and at the same time utilising the water of said steam to partly supply the steam generating vessel of said

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pile in the socket after the extension cap has been placed on the pile, substantially as set forth. (2) The combination, with a metal cap for piles, said cap having a socket for receiving the tenon or end of the pile, said socket having ridges or projections for indenting the wood, of one or more wedges, tapering plugs, or suitable device for expanding the tenon or end of the pile in the said socket, substantially as set forth.